Phonological similarity effects were used to assess the role of acoustic coding in verbal complex span, a processing-plus-storage measure found to correlate significantly with aspects of complex cognition. Three experiments demonstrated consistent effects of phonological similarity on listening span. These effects appeared relatively insensitive to manipulations of task materials (Experiment 1) and differences in processing task demands (Experiments 2 and 3). The results were interpreted as reflecting a significant role for the phonological loop in supporting verbal complex span and a multicomponent view of working memory, as tapped by these tests. Phonological similarity did not significantly interact with aspects of the tasks varied across Experiments 1 to 3, suggesting a relative robustness of the effect. However, variation in the phonological similarity effect sizes across Experiments 1 to 3 supports the suggestion that task demands and characteristics have the potential to disrupt the phonological similarity effect and, by implication, the reliance on a phonological code.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AtkinsPWBBaddeleyAD (1998). Working memory and distributed vocabulary learning.Applied Psycholinguistics19, 537–552.
2.
BaddeleyAD (1966). Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic and formal similarity.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology18, 362–365.
3.
BaddeleyAD (1986). Working memoryOxford, UK:Oxford University Press.
4.
BaddeleyAD (1996a). The concept of working memory. In S. E. Gathercole (Ed.), Models of short-term memory(pp. 1–22)Hove, UK:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
5.
BaddeleyAD (1996b). Exploring the central executive.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology49A, 5–28.
6.
BaddeleyAD (1998). Recent developments in working memory.Current Opinion in Neurobiology8, 234–238.
7.
BaddeleyAD (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory?.Trends in Cognitive Neuroscience11, 417–423.
8.
BaddeleyADChincottaDStaffordLTurkD (2003). Is the word length effect in STM entirely attributable to output delay? Evidence from serial recognition.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology55A, 353–369.
9.
BaddeleyAGathercoleSPapagnoC (1998). The phonological loop as a language learning device.Psychological Review105, 158–173.
10.
BaddeleyADHitchG (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivationVol. 8 New York:Academic Press.
11.
BaddeleyALarsenJD (2003). Disruption of verbal STM by irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression, and manual tapping: Do they have a common source?.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology56A, 1249–1268.
12.
BaddeleyADLewisVJVallarG (1984). Exploring the articulatory loop.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology36, 233–252.
13.
BaddeleyADLiebermanK (1980). Spatial working memory. In R. S. Nickerson (Ed.), Attention and performance VIIIHillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
14.
BaddeleyADLogieR (1999). Working memory: The multiple component model. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control(pp. 28–61)New York:Cambridge University Press.
15.
BaddeleyADLogieRNimmo-SmithIBreretonN (1985). Components of fluent reading.Journal of Memory & Language24, 119–131.
16.
BaddeleyADThomsonNBuchananM (1975). Word length and the structure of short term memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior14, 575–589.
17.
BarrouilletPBernadinSCamosV (in press). Time constraints, resource sharing in adults’ working memory spans.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
18.
BarrouilletPCamosV (2001). Developmental increase in working memory span: Resource sharing or trace decay?.Journal of Memory & Language45, 1–20.
19.
BaylissDMJarroldCGunnDMBaddeleyAD (2003). The complexities of complex span: Explaining individual differences in working memory in children and adults.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General132, 171–92.
20.
BrownGDAHulmeC (1995). Modeling item length effects in memory span-no rehearsal needed.Journal of Memory & Language34, 594–621.
21.
CaseRKurlandDMGoldbergJ (1982). Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory span.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology33, 386–404.
22.
CheinJMFiezJ (2001). Dissociation of verbal working memory system components using a delayed serial recall task.Cerebral Cortex11, 1003–1014.
23.
ChiappePHasherLSiegelLS (2000). Working memory, inhibitory control, and reading disability.Memory & Cognition28, 8–17.
24.
ColletteFvan der LindenMBechetSSalmonE (1999). Phonological loop and central executive functioning in Alzheimer's disease.Neuropsychologia37, 905–918.
25.
ColtheartVLangdonR (1998). Recall of short word lists presented visually at fast rates: Effects of phonological similarity and word length.Memory & Cognition26, 330–342.
26.
ConradR (1964). Acoustic confusion in immediate memory.British Journal of Psychology55, 75–84.
27.
ConradR (1972). The developmental role of vocalising in STM.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior11, 521–533.
28.
CopelandDERadvanskyGA (2001). Phonological similarity in working memory.Memory & Cognition29, 774–776.
29.
CowanNScott SaultsJWinterowdCSherkM (1991). Enhancement of 4-year-old children's memory span for phonologically similar and dissmiliar word lists.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology51, 30–52.
30.
DanemanMCarpenterPA (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading comprehension.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior19, 450–466.
31.
DanemanMMeriklePM (1996). Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review3, 422–433.
32.
DanemanMTardifT (1987). Working memory and reading skill re-examined. In M. Coltheart (Ed.), Attention and performance XII(pp. 491–508)Hove, UK:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
33.
De RenziE (1982). Memory disorders following focal cortical damage.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society298, 73–83.
34.
DuffSCLogieRH (2001). Processing and storage in working memory span.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology54A, 31–48.
35.
EngleRWKaneMJTuholskiSW (1999a). Individual differences in working memory capacity and what they tell us about controlled attention, general fluid intelligence and functions of the pre-frontal cortex. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory(pp. 102–134)New York:Cambridge University Press.
36.
EngleRWTuholskiSWLaughlinJEConwayARA (1999b). Working memory, short-term memory and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General128, 309–331.
37.
EstevezACalvoMG (2000). Working memory capacity and time course of predictive inferences.Memory8, 51–61.
38.
FallonABGrovesKTehanG (1999). Phonological similarity and trace degradation in the serial recall task: When CAT helps RAT but not MAN.International Journal of Psychology34, 301–308.
39.
FordSSilberKP (1994). Working memory in children: A developmental approach to the phonological coding of pictorial material.British Journal of Developmental Psychology12, 165–175.
40.
GathercoleSEAdamsA-MHitchGJ (1994). Do young children rehearse? An individual-differences analysis.Memory & Cognition22, 201–297.
41.
GathercoleSEBaddeleyAD (1993). Working memory and languageHove, UK:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
42.
GathercoleSEFrankishCRPickeringSJPeakerS (1999a). Phonotactic influences on short-term memory.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition25, 84–95.
43.
GathercoleSEPickeringSJ (2000). Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age.British Journal of Educational Psychology70, 177–194.
44.
GathercoleSEServiceEHitchGJAdamsA-MMartinAJ (1999b). Phonological short-term memory and vocabulary development: Further evidence on the nature of the relationship.Applied Cognitive Psychology13, 65–77.
45.
GilhoolyKJLogieRHWetherickNEWynnV (1993). Working memory and strategies in syllogistic-reasoning tasks.Memory & Cognition21, 115–124.
46.
HallJWWilsonKPHumphriesMSTinzmannMBBowyerPM (1983). Phonemic similarity effects in good versus poor readers.Memory & Cognition11, 520–527.
47.
HallidayMSHitchGJLennonBPettiferC (1990). Verbal short-term memory in children: The role of the articulatory loop.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology2, 23–38.
48.
HanleyJRBakopoulouE (2003). Irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression, and phonological similarity: A test of the phonological loop model and the feature model.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review10, 435–444.
49.
HenryLA (2001). How does the severity of a learning disability affect working memory performance?.Memory9, 233–247.
50.
HenryLATurnerJESmithPTLeatherC (2000). Modality effects and the development of the word length effect in children.Memory8, 1–17.
51.
HulmeC (1987). The effects of acoustic similarity on memory in children: A comparison between visual and auditory presentation.Applied Cognitive Psychology1, 45–52.
52.
HupetMDesmetteDSchelstraeteMA (1997). What does Daneman and Carpenter's reading span really measure?.Perceptual and Motor Skills84, 603–608.
53.
HuttonUMZTowseJN (2001). Short-term memory and working memory as indices of children's cognitive skills.Memory9, 383–394.
54.
JohnstonRSRuggMDScottT (1987). Phonological similarity effects, memory span and developmental reading disorders: The nature of the relationship.British Journal of Psychology78, 205–211.
55.
JustMACarpenterPA (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory.Psychological Review99, 122–149.
56.
KaneMJEngleRW (2000). Working-memory capacity, proactive interference, and divided attention: Limits on long-term memory retrieval.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition26, 336–358.
57.
KyllonenPCChristalRE (1990). Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity.Intelligence14, 389–433.
58.
LaPointeLBEngleRW (1990). Simple and complex word spans as measures of working memory capacity.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition16, 1118–1133.
59.
LeatherCVHenryLA (1994). Working memory span and phonological awareness tasks as predictors of early reading ability.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology58, 88–111.
60.
LehtoJ (1996). Are executive function tests dependent on working memory capacity?.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology49A, 29–50.
61.
LevyBA (1971). The role of articulation in auditory and visual short-term memory.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior10, 123–132.
62.
LogieRH (1995). Visuo-spatial working memoryHove, UK:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
63.
LogieRHDella SalaSLaiaconaMChalmersPWynnV (1996). Group aggregates and individual reliability: The case of verbal short-term memory.Memory & Cognition24, 305–321.
64.
LogieRHMarchettiC (1991). Visuo-spatial working memory: Visual, spatial or central executive?. In R. H. Logie & M. Denis (Eds.), Mental images in human cognition(pp. 105–115)Amsterdam:North Holland Press.
65.
LogieRHPearsonDG (1997). The inner ear and the inner scribe of visuo-spatial working memory: Evidence from developmental fractionation.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology9, 241–257.
66.
LogieRHSalwayAFS (1990). Working memory and modes of thinking: A secondary task approach. In K. Gilhooly, M. Keane, R. Logie, & G. Erdos (Eds.), Lines of thinking: Reflections on the psychology of thought(2, pp. 99–113) Chichester, UK:Wiley.
67.
MackenWJJonesDM (2003). Reification of phonological storage.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology56A, 1279–1288.
68.
Martin-LoechesMSchweinbergerSRSommerW (1997). The phonological loop model of working memory: An ERP study of irrelevant speech and phonological similarity effects.Memory & Cognition25, 471–483.
69.
McLeanJFHitchGJ (1999). Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic learning difficulties.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology74, 240–260.
70.
MilnerB (1971). Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man.British Medical Bulletin3, 272–277.
71.
NationKAdamsJWBowyer-CraneCASnowlingMJ (1999). Working memory deficits in poor comprehenders reflect underlying language impairments.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology73, 139–158.
72.
NeathIFarleyLASurprenantAM (2003). Directly assessing the relationship between irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology56A, 1269–1278.
73.
NeathINairneJS (1995). Word length effects in immediate memory: Overwriting trace decay.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review2, 429–411.
74.
OakhillJKyleF (2000). The relation between phonological awareness and working memory.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology75, 152–164.
75.
OsakaNOsakaMKondoHMorishitaMFukuyamaHShibasakiH (2004). The neural basis of executive function in working memory: An fMRI study based on individual differences.Neuroimage21, 623–631.
76.
PaivioA (1971). Imagery and verbal processesNew York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
77.
PapagnoCVallarG (1992). Phonological short-term memory and the learning of novel words: The effect of phonological similarity and item length.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology44A, 47–67.
78.
PapagnoCVallarG (2001). Understanding metaphors and idioms: A single-case neuropsychological study in a person with Down's syndrome.Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society7, 516–527.
79.
PassolunghiMCCornoldiCde LibertoS (1999). Working memory and intrusions of irrelevant information in a group of specific poor problem solvers.Memory & Cognition27, 779–790.
80.
PerfettiCAGoldmanSR (1976). Discourse memory and reading comprehension skill.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior15, 33–42.
81.
RapeliPServiceESalinPHolopainenA (1997). A dissociation between simple and complex span impairment in alcoholics.Memory5, 741–762.
82.
SaitoSMiyakeA (2004). On the nature of forgetting and the processing-storage relationship in reading span performance.Journal of Memory & Language50, 425–443.
83.
SalamePBaddeleyAD (1982). Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: Implications for the structure of working memory.Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior21, 150–164.
84.
SalthouseTABabcockRL (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory.Developmental Psychology27, 763–776.
85.
SeigneuricAEhrlichMFOakhillJVYuillNM (2000). Working memory resources and children's reading comprehension.Reading & Writing13, 81–103.
86.
ServiceESimolaMMetsanheimoOMauryS (2002). Bilingual working memory span is affected by language skill.European Journal of Cognitive Psychology14, 383–408.
87.
ShahPMiyakeA (1996). The separability of working memory resources for spatial thinking and language processing: An individual differences approach.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General125, 4–27.
88.
ShuteVJ (1991). Who is likely to acquire programming skills?.Journal of Educational Computing Research7, 1–24.
89.
SiegalLSRyanEB (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children.Child Development60, 973–980.
90.
SwansonHL (1996). Individual and age-related differences in children's working memory.Memory & Cognition24, 70–82.
91.
TehanGHendryLKocinskiD (2001). Word length and phonological similarity effects in simple, complex and delayed serial recall tasks: Implications for working memory.Memory9, 333–348.
92.
TowseJNHitchGJHamiltonZPeacockKHuttonUMZ (2005). Working memory period: The endurance of mental representations.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology58A, 547–571.
93.
TowseJNHitchGJHuttonU (1998). A reevaluation of working memory capacity in children.Journal of Memory & Language39, 195–217.
94.
TowseJNHitchGJHuttonU (2000). On the interpretation of working memory span in adults.Memory & Cognition28, 341–348.
95.
TurnerMLEngleRW (1989). Is working memory capacity task dependent?.Journal of Memory & Language28, 127–154.
96.
WatersGSCaplanD (1996a). The capacity theory of sentence comprehension: Critique of just and carpenter (1992).Psychological Review103, 761–772.
97.
WatersGSCaplanD (1996b). The measurement of verbal working memory capacity and its relation to reading comprehension.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology49A, 51–79.
98.
YuillNOakhillJParkinA (1989). Working memory, comprehension ability and the resolution of text anomaly.British Journal of Psychology80, 351–361.
