With the growing insight that outbreaks of violent conflict may be linked to environmental degradation and scarcity, “environment and security” has become an object of interest to both political and environmental science. The road to mutually reinforcing activities is blocked by several antagonisms, however, and the heavy emphasis on the national level has precluded the tapping of the wealth of conflict knowledge in anthropology. An improved relationship between the security and environment science fields is suggested by clarifying and linking the generalized “causal stories” that security and environmental scientists tell around their core concepts (security and sustainability, respectively). On that basis, and if focusing on a (subnational) scale that facilitates the involvement of anthropology too, joint research projects can yield a balanced understanding of the links between environment and security.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Adams, W. M., & Thomas, D.H.L. (1993). Mainstream sustainable development: The challenge of putting theory into practice. Journal of International Development, 5(6), 591-604.
2.
Af Ornas, A. Hjort, & Mohamed Salih, M. A. (Eds.). (1989). Ecology and politics: Environmental stress and security in Africa. Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
3.
Barth, F. (1956). Ecological relationships of ethnic groups in Swat, North Pakistan. American Anthropologist, 58, 1079-1089.
4.
Baud, M., Konings, K., Oostindie, G., Ouweneel, A., & Silva, P. (1994). Etniciteit als strategie in Latijns-Amerika en de Caraiben [Ethnicity as strategy in Latin-America and the Caribbean]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press.
5.
Bouwer, K., & Copius Peereboom, J. W. (1993). Environmental science “Milieukunde” in the Netherlands: A review. The Science of the Total Environment, 129, 157-170.
6.
Brock, L. (1991). Peace through parks: The environment on the peace research agenda. Journal of Peace Research, 28(4), 407-423.
7.
Brock, L. (1992). Security through defending the environment: An illusion? In E. Boulding (Ed.), New agendas for peace research: Conflict and security reexamined (pp. 79-102). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
8.
Casimir, M. J., & Rao, A. (Eds.). (1992). Mobility and territoriality: Social and spatial boundaries among foragers, fishers, pastoralists and peripatetics. New York: Berg.
9.
Chambers, R., & Guijit, I. (1995). PRA—five years later. Where are we now?Forests, Trees and People Newsletter, 26/27, 4-13.
10.
Chandrasekharan, D. (1996). Proceedings electronic conference on “Addressing natural resource conflicts through community forestry”, January-May 1996. Rome: Community Forestry Unit, Forests, Trees and People Programme, Forestry Department, FAO.
11.
Charnovitz, S. (1996). Trade measures and the design of international regimes. Journal of Environment and Development, 5(2), 168-196.
12.
Coser, L. A. (1967). Continuities in the study of social conflict. New York: Free Press.
13.
Dahl, G. (1991). The Beja of Sudan and the famine of 1984-1986. Ambio, 20(5), 189-191.
14.
Davidson, J., Myers, D., & Chakraborty, M. (1992). No time to waste: Poverty and the global environment. London: Oxfam.
15.
De Groot, W. T. (1992). Environmental science theory: Concepts and methods in a one-world, problem-oriented paradigm. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science.
16.
De Groot, W. T., & Kamminga, E. M. (1995). Forest, people, government: A policy oriented analysis of the social dynamics of tropical deforestation. Bilthoven: NRP Programme Office.
17.
De Groot, W. T., Van Wetten, J. C., & Drijver, C. A. (1995). Drawing the boundary: An explorative model of the defence of the commons. In J.P.M. van den Breemer, C. A. Drijver, & L. B. Venema (Eds.), Local resource management in Africa (pp. 211-227). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
18.
Despres, L. A. (1975). Ethnicity and resource competition in plural societies. The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton.
19.
Deudney, D. (1991). The case against linking environmental degradation and national security. Millenium: Journal of International Studies, 19(3), 461-476.
20.
Durham, W. H. (1979). Scarcity and survival in Central America: Ecological origins of the Soccer War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
21.
Dutch Committee for Longterm Environmental Policy. (1994). The environment: Towards a sustainable future. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
22.
Dyson-Hudson, R., & Smith, E. A. (1978). Human territoriality: an ecological reassessment. American Anthropology, 80, 21-41.
23.
Elliott, L. (1996). Environmental conflict: Reviewing the arguments. Journal of Environment & Development, 5(2), 149-167.
24.
Elster, J. (1989). Nuts and bolts for the social sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
25.
Gleditsch, N. P. (1991, November). Seminar on conversion and the environment (Perm, Russia. PRIO Report No. 02/1992). Oslo, Norway: International Peace Research Institute.
26.
Gleick, P. H. (1993). Water and conflict: Fresh water resources and international security. International Security, 18(1), 79-112.
27.
Goldstone, J. A. (1991). Revolution and rebellion in the early modern world. Berkeley: University of California Press.
28.
Graeger, N. (1996). Environmental security?Journal of Peace Research, 33(1), 109-116.
29.
Gurr, T. R. (1993). Why minorities rebel: A global analysis of communal mobilization and conflict since 1945. International Political Science Review, 14(2), 161-201.
30.
Harbottle, M. (1995). New roles for the military, humanitarian and environmental security. Conflict Studies, 285, 1-24.
31.
Harcourt, W. (1991). Human security and the gender perspective. Development, 1, 21-22.
32.
Hassan, S. (1991). Environmental issues and security in South Asia. Adelphi Papers, 262,3-69.
33.
Heuer, F.J.P. (1980). Over het uitvoeren van beleidsanalytische studies [About the implementation of policy analysis research]. Beleidsanalyse, 9(1), 5-13.
34.
Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1991). On the threshold: Environmental changes as causes of acute conflict. International Security, 16(2), 76-116.
35.
Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1994). Environmental scarcities and violent conflict: Evidence from cases. International Security, 19(1), 5-40.
36.
Homer-Dixon, T. F., & Levy, M. A. (1995). Correspondence: Environment and security. International Security, 20(3), 189-198.
37.
Kakönen, J. (Ed.). (1992). Perspectives on environmental conflicts and international relations. London: Pinter.
38.
Kok, M.T.J. (1996). Environmental security and sustainable development: Introduction to the workshop and some conclusions. In M.T.J. Kok (Ed.), International workshop on environmental security and sustainable development (pp. 5-14). Bilthoven: RIVM.
39.
Kruijt, D. (1997). Violent conflicts in Latin America: Causes of instability and the involvement of the military. In Internal conflicts, security, and development (pp. 20-34). Den Haag: RAWOO lectures and seminar.
40.
Levy, M. A. (1995). Is the environment a national security issue?International Security, 20(2), 35-62.
41.
Levy, M. A., & Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1995). Correspondence: Environment and security. International Security, 20(3), 189-198.
42.
Markakis, J. (1989). The Ishaq-Ogaden dispute. In A. Hjort Af Ornas & M. A. Mohamed Salih (Eds.), Ecology and politics: Environmental stress and security in Africa (pp.157-166). Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
43.
Moss, R. (1992). Environmental security? The illogic of centralized state responses to environmental threats (The Studies and Research Center on Environmental Policies-GEPRE; Cahier 92-05). Quebec: Université Laval.
44.
Myers, N. (1989a). Environment and security. Foreign Policy, 74, 23-41.
45.
Myers, N. (1989b). Population growth, environmental decline and security issues in Sub-Saharan Africa. In A. Hjort Af Ornas & M. A. Mohamed Salih (Eds.), Ecology and politics: Environmental stress and security in Africa (pp. 212-226). Uppsala, Sweden: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.
46.
Naff, T., & Matson, R. (1984). Water in the Middle East, conflict or cooperation?Boulder, CO: Westview.
47.
NCDO/Duurzame Wereld. (1997, February). European conference on conflict prevention (conference report). Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
48.
Oberschall, A. (1978). Theories of social conflict. Annual Review of Sociology, 4, 291-315.
49.
Opschoor, J. B. (1996, April). The concept of environmental security: A historical introduction. In M.T.J. Kok (Ed.), International workshop on environmental security and sustainable development (pp. 15-21). Bilthoven: RIVM.
50.
Opschoor, J. B., & Goedmakers, A.M.C.(1987). Militaire activiteiten en milieu; een relevant onderzoeksveld [Military activities and the environment: A relevant research field]. Milieu, 2, 42-46.
51.
Percival, V., & Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1996). Environmental scarcity and violent conflict: The case of Rwanda. Journal of Environment & Development, 3(5), 270-291.
52.
Perelet, R. (1994). The environment as a security issue. In Dutch Committee for Long-Term Environmental Policy (Ed.), The environment: Towards a sustainable future (pp. 147-173). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
53.
Porfiriev, B. N. (1992). The environmental dimension of national security: A test of systems analysis methods. Environmental Management, 16(6), 735-742.
54.
Porter, G. (1995). Environmental security as a national security issue. Current History: A Monthly Magazine of World Affairs, 94(592), 218-222.
55.
Röling, B.V.A. (1985). Armament, disarmament, development and security. In B. Goudzwaard (Ed.), Economie, bewapening en ontwikkeling [Economy, armament and development] (pp. 149-174). Alphen aan de Rijn, The Netherlands: Samsom.
56.
Rule, J. B. (1988). Theories of civil violence. Berkeley: University of California Press.
57.
Scholte, P., Kari, S., & Moritz, M. (1996). The involvement of nomadic and transhuman pastoralists in the rehabilitation and management of the Logone floodplain, North Cameroon (Drylands Programme Issues Paper 66). London: IIED.
58.
Shepherd, G. (1989). The reality of the commons: Answering Hardin from Somalia. Development Policy Review, 7, 51-63.
59.
Simmel, G. (1955). “Conflict” and “the web of group-affiliations” (K. H. Wolff & R. Bendix, Trans.). London: Free Press of Glencoe.
60.
Skocpol, T. (1994). Social revolutions in the modern world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
61.
Soroos, M. S. (1992). Why I am insecure about environmental security. Geopolitical Perspectives on Environmental Security (The Studies and Research Center on Environmental Policies-GEPRE, Cahier 92-05). Quebec: Université Laval.
62.
Soroos, M. S. (1994). Global change, environmental security, and the prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Peace Research, 31(3), 317-332.
63.
Springer, A. L. (1997). The Canadian Turbot War with Spain: Unilateral state action in defense of environmental interests. Journal of Environment & Development, 6(1), 26-60.
64.
Stoett, P. J. (1994a). The environmental enlightenment. Coexistence, 31, 127-146.
65.
Stoett, P. J. (1994b). Global environmental security, energy resources and planning. Futures, 26(7), 741-758.
66.
Swart, R. (1996). Security risks of global environmental change. In M.T.J. Kok (Ed.), International workshop on environmental security and sustainable development (pp. 22-40). Bilthoven: RIVM.
67.
The South Centre. (1992, October). Enhancing the economic role of the United Nations.
68.
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E. (1977). Staff, Kulaks and peasants. In L. Cliffe, J. S. Coleman & M. Doornbos (Eds.), Government and rural development in East Africa (pp. 223-250). The Hague, The Netherlands: Nijhoff.
69.
Toulmin, C. (1996, September). Local management of natural resource conflicts: Should we formalise the informal? Lecture at the AEGIS/CERES/CNWS-Summer School on Environmental Resource Competition. The Hague, The Netherlands.
70.
Ullman, R. H. (1983). Redefining security. International Security, 8(1), 129-153.
71.
Van Beek, W. (1996, September). Resource conflicts and their symbolic and ideological rationales in the West Africal Sahel. Lecture at the AEGIS/CERES/CNWS-Summer School on Environmental Resource Competition. The Hague, The Netherlands.
72.
Van Beek, W., & Banga, P. M. (1992). The Dogon and their trees. In E. Croll & D. Parkin (Eds.), Bush base: Forest farm: Culture, environment and development (pp. 57-75). London: Routledge.
73.
Van den Breemer, J.P.M. (1992). Ideas and usage: Environment in Aoun society, Ivory Coast. In E. Croll & D. Parkin (Eds.), Bush base: Forest farm: Culture, environment and development (pp. 97-109). London: Routledge.
74.
Van den Hombergh, H. (1993). Gender, environment and development: A guide to the literature. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Ecologische Uitgeverij.
75.
Van Dijk, H. (1996). Land tenure, territoriality, and ecological instability: A Sahelian case study. In J. Spiertz & M. G. Wiber (Eds.), The role of law in natural resource management(pp. 17-45). The Hague, The Netherlands: VUGA.
76.
Van Est, D., & Noorduyn, R. (1997, September). Resource use by floodplain communities. In H. De Iongh (Chair), Managing the dry African savanna: Options for conservation and sustainable use. International Seminar, Centre of Environmental Science, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
77.
Van Harskamp, A. (Ed.). (1996). Conflicts in social science. London: Routledge.
78.
Van Mourik, F., Van Teylingen, H., & Vertegaal, P. (1985). De natuur onder vuur: Milieueffecten van militaire activiteiten [Nature under attack: Environmental effects of military activities]. Ekologie 26/27. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Stichting Ekologie.
79.
Wallensteen, P. (Ed.). (1988). Peace research: Achievements and challenges. Boulder, CO: Westview.
80.
Weinberg, B. (1991). War on the land: Ecology and politics in Central America. London: Zed.
81.
Westing, A. H. (Ed.). (1986). Global resources and international conflict: Environmental factors in strategic policy and action. New York: Oxford University Press.
82.
Westing, A. H. (1991). Environmental security and its relation to Ethiopia and Sudan. Ambio, 20(5), 168-171.
83.
Wiberg, H. (1988). The peace research movement. In P. Wallensteen (Ed.), Peace research: Achievements and challenges (pp. 30-53). Boulder, CO: Westview.
84.
World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our common future. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
