The study of well-being is hampered by the multiplicity of approaches, but focusing on a single approach begs the question of what “well-being” really is. We analyze how well-being is defined according to the three main kinds of theories: “Liking” approaches (generally adopted by psychologists), “Wanting” approaches (predominant among economists), and “Needing” approaches (used in both public policy and psychology). We propose an integrative framework, the engine model of well-being, drawing on Seligman (Seligman, M. E. P., 2011, Flourish. New York, NY: The Free Press) and Sen's (Sen, A. K., 1999, Development as freedom. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press) emphasis on the plurality of this construct by distinguishing among (a) inputs (resources that enable well-being), (b) processes (internal states of mechanisms influencing well-being), and (c) outcomes (the intrinsically valuable behaviors that reflect the attainment of well-being). We discuss implications for research, measurement, and interventions.
AlkireS. (2002). Dimensions of development. World Development, 30, 181–205. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00109-7
2.
AngnerE. (2011). The Evolution of Eupathics: The historical roots of subjective measures of wellbeing. International Journal of Wellbeing 1, 4–41.
3.
Aristotle. (350 BC/1998). Nichomachean ethics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
4.
BaumeisterR. F. (1992). Meanings in life. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5.
BeckA., RushJ., ShawB., & EmeryG. (1987). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
6.
BenthamJ. (1789/1996). Introduction to principles of morals and legislation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
7.
BlockJ. (1982). Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development, 53, 281–295. doi:10.2307/1128971
8.
BradburnN. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine.
9.
BrunsteinJ. C., SchultheissO. C., & GrassmanR. (1998). Personal goals and emotional well-being: The moderating role of motive dispositions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 494–508. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.494
10.
CarverC. S., & ScheierM. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
11.
ChamberlainK., & ZikaS. (1992). Stability and change in subjective well-being over short time periods. Social Indicators Research, 26, 101–117. doi:10.1007/BF00304394
12.
ChappellT., & CrispR. (1998). Utilitarianism. In CraigE., The Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy (Vol. 9, pp. 551–557). London, England: Routledge.
13.
ClarkD. A. (2006). The capability approach: Its development, critiques and recent advances. In ClarkD. A., The Elgar companion to development studies (pp. 1–18). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
14.
ComimF. (2005). Capabilities and happiness: Potential synergies. Review of Political Economy, LXIII, 161–176.
15.
CsikszentmihalyiM. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
16.
CsikszentmihalyiM. (1996). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
17.
CsikszentmihalyiM., & LarsonR. W. (1987). Validity and reliability of the experience sampling method. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175, 526–536. doi:10.1097/00005053-198709000-00004
18.
CumminsR. A. (1998). The second approximation to an international standard for life satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 43, 307–334. doi:10.1023/A:1006831107052
19.
DannerD. D., SnowdenD. A., & FriesenW. V. (2001). Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the Nun Study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 804–813. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.804
20.
DavisC. G., Nolen-HoeksemaS., & LarsonJ. (1998). Making sense of loss and benefiting from the experience: Two constructs of meaning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 561–574. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.2.561
21.
DeciE. L., & RyanR. M. (1980). Self-determination theory: When mind mediates behavior. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 1, 33–43.
22.
DeciE. L., & RyanR. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
23.
DeciE. L., & RyanR. M. (1991). A motivational approach to the self: Integration in personality. In DienstbierR. A., Perspectives on motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1990 (Vol. 38, pp. 237–238). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
24.
DeciE. L., & RyanR. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 227–268. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
25.
DienerE. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.34
26.
DienerE. (2006). Guidelines for national indicators of subjective well-being and ill-being. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 1, 151–157.
27.
DienerE., & ChanM. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well-being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 3, 1–43. doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x
28.
DienerE., DienerM., & DienerC. (1995). Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 851–864. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.851
29.
DienerE., EmmonsR., LarsenR., & GriffinS. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
30.
DienerE., FulitaF., TayL., & Biswas-DienerR. (2012). Purpose, mood, and pleasure in prediction satisfaction judgments. Social Indicators Research, 105, 333–341. doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9787-8
31.
DienerE., KahnemanD., AroraR., HarterJ., & TovW. (2009). Income's Differential Influence on Judgments of Life Versus Affective Well-Being. In Assessing Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener (pp. 233–245). Netherlands: Springer Verlag.
32.
DienerE., LucasR., SchimmackU., & HelliwellJ. (2009). Well-being for public policy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195334074.001.0001
33.
DienerE., NgW., HarterJ., & AroraR. (2010). Wealth and happiness across the world: Material prosperity predicts life evaluation, whereas psychosocial prosperity predicts positive feeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 52–61. doi:10.1037/a0018066
34.
DienerE., ScollonC., & LucasR. (2003). The evolving concept of Subjective Well-Being: The multifaceted nature of happiness. Advances in Cell Aging and Gerontology, 15, 187–219. doi:10.1016/S1566-3124(03)15007-9
35.
DienerE., & SeligmanM. E. P. (2004). Beyond money: Toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5, 1–31. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00501001.x
36.
DienerE., & SuhE. (1997). Measuring quality of life: Economic, social and subjective indicators. Social Indicators Research, 40, 189–216. doi:10.1023/A:1006859511756
37.
DienerE., SuhE., LucasR., & SmithH. (1999). Subjective Well-Being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276
38.
DienerE., & TovW. (2007). Subjective well-being and peace. Journal of Social Issues, 63, 421–440. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00517.x
39.
DolanP., PeasgoodT., & WhiteM. (2006). Review of research on the influences on personal well-being and application to policy making. London, England: Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs.
40.
DolanP., & WhiteM. P. (2006). Dynamic well-being: Connecting indicators of what people anticipate with indicators of what they experience. Social Indicators Research, 75, 303–333. doi:10.1007/s11205-004-6298-x
41.
DolanP., & WhiteM. P. (2007). How can measures of subjective well-being be used to inform public policy?Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 71–85. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00030.x
42.
DoyleW. J., GentileD. A., & CohenS. (2006). Emotional style, nasal cytokines, and illness expression after experimental rhinovirus exposure. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 20, 175–181. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2005.05.005
43.
EasterlinR. (1974). Does economic growth improve the human lot? In DavidP. A. and RederM. W., Nations and households in economic growth: Essays in honor of Moses Abramovitz (pp. 89–125). New York, NY: Academic Press.
44.
EasterlinR. A. (2003). Explaining happiness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 100, 11176–11183. doi:10.1073/pnas.1633144100
45.
EkinsP., & Max-NeefM.. (1992). Real life economics. London, England: Routledge.
46.
EricssonK. A. (2002). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In FerrariM., The pursuit of excellence through education (pp. 21–55). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
47.
EstesR. J. (1997). The world social situation: Social work's contribution to international development. In EdwardsR., Encyclopedia of social work. Supplement to the 19th edition (pp. 343–359). Washington, DC: National Association of Social Workers.
48.
FleesonW. (2007). Using experience sampling and multilevel modeling to study person-situation interactionist approaches to positive psychology. In OngA. D. & van DulmenM. H. M., Oxford handbook of methods in positive psychology (pp. 501–514). New York: Oxford University Press.
49.
FleesonW., MalanosA. B., & AchilleN. M. (2002). An intraindividual process approach to the relationship between extraversion and positive affect: Is acting extraverted as “good” as being extraverted?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1409–1422. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1409
50.
ForgeardM. J. C., HaighE. A. P., BeckA. T., DavidsonR. J., HennF. A., MaierS. F., … SeligmanM. E. P. (2011). Beyond depression: Toward a process-based approach to research, diagnosis, and treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 18, 275–299. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2011.01259.x
51.
ForgeardM. J. C., JayawickremeE., KernM. L., & SeligmanM. E. P. (2011). Doing the right thing: Measuring well-being for public policy. International Journal of Wellbeing, 1, 79–106.
52.
FredricksonB. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
53.
FredricksonB. L., & BraniganC. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313–332. doi:10.1080/02699930441000238
54.
FredricksonB. L., CohnM. A., CoffeyK. A., PekJ., & FinkelS. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1045–1062. doi:10.1037/a0013262
55.
GableS., & HaidtJ. (2005). Positive psychology. Review of General Psychology, 9, 103–110. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103
56.
GasperD. (2004). The ethics of development. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.
57.
GeussR. (2005). Outside ethics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
58.
GilbertD. T., & WilsonT. D. (2007). Prospection: Experiencing the future. Science, 317, 1351–1354. doi:10.1126/science.1144161
59.
GrahamC. (2011). The pursuit of happiness: An economy of well-being. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
60.
GriffinJ. (1986). Well-being: Its meaning, measurement and moral importance. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
61.
HagertyM. R., CumminsR. A., FerrissA. L., LandK., MichalosA. C., PetersonM., … VogelJ. (2001). Quality of life indexes for national policy: Review and agenda for research. Social Indicators Research, 55, 1–96. doi:10.1023/A:1010811312332
62.
HaidtJ. (2007). The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science, 316, 998–1002. doi:10.1126/science.1137651
63.
HarsanyiJ. C. (1982). Papers in game theory. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel Publishing Company.
64.
HaybronD. M. (2007). Do we know how happy we are? On some limits of affective introspection and recall. Nous, 41, 394–428. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0068.2007.00653.x
65.
HaybronD. M. (2008). The pursuit of unhappiness: The elusive psychology of well-being. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
66.
HeckhausenJ., WroschC., & SchulzR. (2010). A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychological Review, 117, 32–60. doi:10.1037/a0017668
67.
HoferJ., BuschH., & KiesslingF. (2008). Individual pathways to life satisfaction: The significance of traits and motives. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 503–520. doi:10.1007/s10902-007-9086-x
68.
HseeC. K., YuF., ZhangJ., & ZhangY. (2003). Medium maximization. Journal of Consumer Research, 30, 1–14. doi:10.1086/374702
69.
InglehartR. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization: Cultural, economic and political change in 43 societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
70.
InglehartR., FoaR., PetersonC., & WelzelC. (2008). Development, freedom, and risingh: A global perspective (1981–2007). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 264–285. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00078.x
71.
JayawickremeE., & PawelskiJ. O. (2012). Positivity and the capabilities approach. Philosophical Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/09515089.2012.660687
72.
JayawickremeE., PawelskiJ. O., & SeligmanM. E. P. (2008). Happiness: Positive psychology and Nussbaum's capabilities approach. In AuxierR., Library of Living Philosophers: The Philosophy of Martha Nussbaum. Chicago, IL: Open Court.
73.
KahnB. E., & IsenA. M. (1993). The influence of positive affect on variety seeking among safe, enjoyable products. Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 257–270. doi:10.1086/209347
74.
KahnemanD. (1999). Objective happiness. In KahnemanD., DienerE., & SchwarzN., Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 3–25). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
75.
KahnemanD., KruegerA. B., SchkadeD. A., SchwarzN., & StoneA. A. (2004). A survey method for characterizing daily life experiences: The day reconstruction method. Science, 306, 1776–1780. doi:10.1126/science.1103572
76.
KahnemanD., & SugdenR. (2005). Experienced utility as a standard of policy evaluation. Environmental and Resource Economics, 32, 161–181. doi:10.1007/s10640-005-6032-4
77.
KashdanT. B., Biswas-DienerR., & KingL. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 219–233. doi:10.1080/17439760802303044
78.
KasserT., & RyanR. M. (1993). A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 410–422. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.410
79.
KasserT., & RyanR. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream: Differential correlates of intrinsic and extrinsic goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 280–287. doi:10.1177/0146167296223006
80.
KahnemanD., & KruegerA. (2006). Developments in the measurement of subjective well-being. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20, 3–24.
81.
KeyesC. L. M., & AnnasJ. (2009). Feeling good and functioning well: Distinctive concepts in ancient philosophy and contemporary science. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 197–201. doi:10.1080/17439760902844228
82.
KeyesC. L. M., ShmotkinD., & RyffC. D. (2002). Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 1007–1022. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.1007
83.
KingL. A., & HicksJ. A. (2007). Whatever happened to “What might have been”? Regrets, happiness, and maturity. American Psychologist, 62, 625–636. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.7.625
84.
KingL. A., & NapaC. K. (1998). What makes a life good?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 156–165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.156
85.
KingL. A., ScollonC. K., RamseyC. M., & WilliamsT. (2000). Stories of life transition: Happy endings, subjective well-being, and ego development in parents of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 509–536. doi:10.1006/jrpe.2000.2285
LinleyP. A., JosephS., HarringtonS., & WoodA. M. (2006). Positive psychology: Past, present, and (possible) future. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 3–16. doi:10.1080/17439760500372796
88.
LockeE. A., & LathamG. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705
89.
LucasR. E., & SchimmackU. (2009). Income and well-being: How big is the gap between the rich and the poor?Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 75–78. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.09.004
90.
LyubomirskyS. (2008). The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want. New York, NY: Penguin Press.
91.
LyubomirskyS., KingL. A., & DienerE. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success?. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
92.
LyubomirskyS., SheldonK. M., & SchkadeD. (2005). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111
93.
MartellC. R., AddisM. E., & DimidjianS. (2004). Finding the action in behavioral activation. The search for empirically-supported interventions and mechanisms of change. In HayesS., LinehanM., & FoletteV., Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition (pp. 152–167). New York, NY: Guildford.
94.
MaslowA. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper Press.
95.
MaslowA. H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York, NY: Penguin.
96.
McGregorI., & LittleB. R. (1998). Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: On doing well and being yourself. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 494–512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.494
97.
McNielJ. M., LowmanJ. C., & FleesonW. (2010). The effect of state extraversion on four types of affect. European Journal of Personality, 24, 18–35. doi:10.1002/per.738
98.
MichaelsonJ., AbdallahS., SteuerN., ThompsonS., & MarksN. (2009). National accounts of well-being: Bringing real wealth onto the balance sheet. London, England: New Economics Foundation.
99.
MooreA., & CrispR. (1996). Welfarism in moral theory. Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 74, 598–613. doi:10.1080/00048409612347551
100.
NavrudS., & ReadyR. C. (2002). Valuing cultural heritage: Applying environmental valuation techniques to historic buildings, monuments and artifacts. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
101.
NegruO. (2008). Personal goals: Structures and processes in adult development. Cogniþie Creier Comportament, 12, 265–283.
102.
NietzscheF. (1968). The will to power. New York, NY: Vintage.
103.
Nolen-HoeksemaS., & DavisC. G. (2002). Positive responses to loss: Perceiving benefits and growth. In SnyderC. R., & LopezS. J., Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 598–606). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
104.
NozickR. (1974). Anarchy, state, and utopia. New York, NY: Basic Books.
105.
NussbaumM. C. (2003). Capabilities as fundamental entitlements: Sen and social justice. Feminist Economics, 9, 33–59. doi:10.1080/1354570022000077926
106.
NussbaumM. C. (2006). Frontiers of justice: Disability, nationality, species. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
107.
NussbaumM. C. (2008). Who is the happy warrior? Philosophy poses questions to psychology. Journal of Legal Studies, 37, S81–S113. doi:10.1086/587438
108.
NussbaumM. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human development approach. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
109.
OfferA. (2006). The challenges of affluence. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
110.
OswaldA. J., & WuS. (2010). Objective confirmation of subjective measures of human well-being. Evidence from the U.S.A. Science, 327, 576–579. doi:10.1126/science.1180606
111.
ParfitD. (1984). Reasons and persons. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
112.
PavotW., & DienerE. (1993). The affective and cognitive context of self-reported measures of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 28, 1–20. doi:10.1007/BF01086714
113.
PetersonC., & SeligmanM. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A classification. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
114.
RanisG., StewartF., & SammanE. (2006). Human development: Beyond the Human Development Index. Journal of Human Development, 7, 323–358. doi:10.1080/14649880600815917
115.
RawlsJ. (1971/1999). A theory of justice. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
116.
ReisH. T., SheldonK. M., GableS. L., RoscoeJ., & RyanR. M. (2000). Daily well-being: The role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 419–435. doi:10.1177/0146167200266002
117.
ReivichK. J., SeligmanM. E., & McBrideS. (2011). Resilience training in the U.S. Army. American Psychologist, 66, 25–34. doi:10.1037/a0021897
118.
RutaD., CamfieldL., & DonaldsonC. (2007). Sen and the art of quality of life maintenance: Towards a general theory of quality of life and its causation. Journal of Socio-Economics, 36, 397–423. doi:10.1016/j.socec.2006.12.004
119.
RyanR. M., & DeciE. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
120.
RyanR. M., HutaV., & DeciE. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139–170. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9023-4
121.
RyanR. M., SheldonK. M., KasserT., & DeciE. L. (1996). All goals are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals and their regulation. In GollwitzerP. M. & BarghJ. A., The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 7–26). New York, NY: Guilford.
122.
RyffC. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
123.
RyffC. D. (1995). Psychological well-being in adult life. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 99–104. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772395
124.
RyffC. D., & KeyesC. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
125.
RyffC. D., & SingerB. H. (1998). The contours of positive human health. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 1–28. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1
126.
RyffC. D., & SingerB. H. (2002). Flourishing under fire: Resilience as a prototype of challenged thriving. In KeyesC. L. M. & HaidtJ., Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived (pp. 15–36). Washington, DC.: American Psychological Association.
127.
SammanE. (2007). Psychological and subjective well-being: A proposal for internationally comparable indicators (OPHI Working Series Paper). Oxford, England: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative.
128.
SchimmackU., & OishiS. (2005). The influence of chronically accessible and temporarily accessible information on life satisfaction judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 395–406. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.395
129.
SchimmackU., OishiS., FurrR. M., & FunderD. C. (2004). Personality and life satisfaction: A facet level analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1062–1075.
130.
SchimmackU. (2009). Well-being: Measuring wellbeing in the SOEP. Schmollers Jahrbuch, 129, 1–9.
131.
SchuellerS. M., & SeligmanM. E. P. (2008). Optimism and pessimism. In DobsonK. S. & DozoisD. A., Risk factors in depression (pp. 171–194). Oxford, England: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-045078-0.00008-3
132.
SchwartzB. (2000). Pitfalls on the pathway to a positive psychology of hope. In GillhamJ., The science of optimism and hope (pp. 399–412). Radnor, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
133.
SchwarzN., & StrackF. (1991). Context effects in attitude surveys: Applying cognitive theory to social research. European Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 31–50. doi:10.1080/14792779143000015
134.
SchwarzM., & StrackF. (1999). Reports of subjective well-being: Judgmental processes and their methodological implications. In KahnemanD., DienerE., & SchwarzN., Foundations of hedonic psychology: Scientific perspectives on enjoyment and suffering (pp. 61–84). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
135.
SchwarzN., StrackF., KommerD., & WagnerD. (1987). Soccer, rooms, and the quality of your life: Mood effects on judgments of satisfaction with life in general and with specific domains. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 69–79. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420170107
136.
SeligmanM. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York, NY: Knopf.
137.
SeligmanM. E. P. (1993). What you can change and what you can't. New York, NY: Knopf.
138.
SeligmanM. E. P. (2002a). Authentic happiness. New York, NY: The Free Press.
139.
SeligmanM. E. P. (2002b). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In SnyderC. R. & LopezS., Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3–9). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
140.
SeligmanM. E. P. (2011). Flourish. New York, NY: The Free Press.
141.
SeligmanM. E. P., & CsikszentmihalyiM. (2000). Positive Psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 1–20.
142.
SeligmanM. E. P., SteenT. A., ParkN., & PetersonC. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
143.
SenA. K. (1992). Inequality reexamined. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
144.
SenA. K. (1993). Capability and well-being. In SenM. C. Nussbaum and A. K., The quality of life (pp. 30–53). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
145.
SenA. K. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
146.
SheldonK. M., ElliotA. J., KimY., & KasserT. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 80, 325–339. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.2.325
147.
SheldonK. M., RyanR., & ReisH. T. (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1270–1279. doi:10.1177/01461672962212007
StevensonB., & WolfersJ. (2008). Economic growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin paradox. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 39, 1–102.
150.
StrackF., MartinL., & SchwarzN. (1988). Priming and communication: Social determinants of information use in judgments of life satisfaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 429–442. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420180505
151.
SumnerL. W. (1996). Welfare, happiness, and ethics. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
152.
TedeschiR. G., ParkC. L., & CalhounL. G. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Hillsdale, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
153.
VeenhovenR. (1991). Is happiness relative?Social Indicators Research, 24, 1–34. doi:10.1007/BF00292648
154.
VeenhovenR. (2000). The four qualities of life. Ordering concepts and measures of the good life. Journal Of Happiness Studies, 1, 1–39.
155.
VeenhovenR. (2006, October). How do we assess how happy we are? Tenets, implications and tenability of three theories. Paper presented the conference on “New Directions in the Study of Happiness: United States and International Perspectives.” University of Notre Dame, South Bend, IN.
156.
WadlingerH. A., & IsaacowitzD. M. (2006). Positive mood broadens visual attention to positive stimuli. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 87–99. doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9021-1
157.
WahbaM. A., & BridwellL. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 212–240. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6
158.
WatermanA. S. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: An Eudaimonist's perspective. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 234–252. doi:10.1080/17439760802303002
159.
WatsonD., ClarkL. A., & TellegenA. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
