Political advertising remains the communication format that dominates presidential campaign budgets. In 2008 Obama’s success in fund-raising resulted in record expenditures on political television advertising. This experimental study tested the effects of viewing a sample of Obama and McCain ads with 1,165 young citizens at 19 locations throughout the United States. Results indicated young citizens learned significantly more about the issue positions of both McCain and Obama than they learned about their personal qualities when viewing the ads. Whereas viewing the ads also resulted in a significant increase in the evaluation of Obama, evaluations of McCain significantly decreased after viewing. Viewing the ads significantly increased levels of political information efficacy, making young citizens more confident that they possessed the information and knowledge necessary to participate in the political system. The experiments also isolated gender differences that suggested young female citizens learned more about the candidates’ issues and personal qualities than did males.
Acock, A., Clarke, H.D., & Stewart, M.C. ( 1985). A new model for old measures: A covariance structure analysis of political efficacy. Journal of Politics, 47(4), 1062-1084.
2.
Althaus, S. ( 1998). Information effects in collective preferences. American Political Science Review, 92(3), 545-558.
3.
Ansolabehere, S., & Iyengar, S. ( 1995). Going negative: How political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York, NY: Free Press.
4.
Ansolabehere, S., Iyengar, S., Simon, A., & Valentino, N. ( 1994). Does attack advertising demobilize the electorate? American Political Science Review, 88(4), 829-838.
5.
Atkin, C.K., Bowen, L., Nayman, O.B., & Sheinkopf, K.G. (1973). Quality versus quantity in televised political ads. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37(2), 209-224.
6.
Atkin, C.K., & Heald, G. ( 1976). Effects of political advertising. Public Opinion Quarterly, 40(2), 216-228.
7.
Bartels, L.M. ( 1996). Uninformed votes: Information effects in presidential elections. American Journal of Political Science, 40(1), 194-230.
8.
Becker, L.B., & Doolittle, J.C. (1975). How repetition affects evaluations of and information seeking about candidates. Journalism Quarterly, 52(4), 611-617.
9.
Brians, C.L., & Wattenberg, M.P. (1996). Campaign issue knowledge and salience: Comparing reception from TV commercials, TV news, and newspapers . American Journal of Political Science, 40(1), 172-193.
10.
Bystrom, D.G., Banwart, M.C., Kaid, L.L., & Robertson, T. ( 2004). Gender and candidate communication: Videostyle, webstyle, newstyle. New York, NY: Routledge .
11.
Campbell, A., Converse, P.E., Miller, W.E., & Stokes, D.E. ( 1960). The American voter. New York, NY: John Wiley.
12.
Christ, W.G., & Thorson, E. ( 1994). Do attitudes toward political advertising affect information processing of televised political commercials? Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 38(3), 251-271.
13.
Clarke, H.D., & Acock, A.C. ( 1989). National elections and political attitudes: The case of political efficacy. British Journal of Political Science , 19(4), 551-562.
14.
Converse, P.E. ( 1964). The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. E. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent (pp. 206-261). New York, NY: Free Press.
15.
Cundy, D.T. ( 1986). Political commercials and candidate image: The effects can be substantial. In L. L. Kaid, D. Nimmo, & K. R. Sanders (Eds.), New perspectives on political advertising (pp. 210-234). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
16.
Delli Carpini, M.X. ( 2000). Gen.com: Youth, civic engagement, and the new information environment. Political Communication, 17(4), 341-349.
17.
Delli Carpini, M.X., & Keeter, S. ( 1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
18.
Downs, A. ( 1957). An economic theory of democracy. New York, NY: Harper.
19.
Faber, R.J., & Storey, M.C. ( 1984). Recall of information from political advertising. Journal of Advertising, 13(3), 39-44.
20.
Finkel, S.E., & Geer, J.G. ( 1998). A spot check: Casting doubt on the demobilizing effect of attack advertising. American Journal of Political Science , 42(2), 573-595.
21.
Garramone, G.M. ( 1984). Voter responses to negative political ads. Journalism Quarterly, 61(2), 250-259.
22.
Garramone, G.M., Atkin, C.K., Pinkleton, B.E., & Cole, R.T. ( 1990). Effects of negative advertising on the political process . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 34(3), 299-311.
23.
Graber, D.A. ( 1988). Processing the news: How people tame the information tide. New York, NY: Longman.
24.
Groenendyk, E.W., & Valentino, N.A. (2002). Of dark clouds and silver linings: Effects of exposure to issue versus candidate advertising on persuasion, information retention, and issue salience. Communication Research , 29(3), 295-319.
25.
Herrnson, P.S., & Patterson, K.D. (2000). Agenda-setting and campaign advertising in congressional elections. In J. A. Thurber, C. J. Nelson, & D. A. Dulio (Eds.), Crowded airways: Campaign advertising in elections (pp. 96-112). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
26.
Hofstetter, C.R., Zukin, C., & Buss, T.F. ( 1978). Political imagery and information in the age of television . Journalism Quarterly, 55(3), 562-569.
27.
Holbert, R.L., Benoit, W.L., Hansen, G.J., & Wen, W.C. ( 2002). The role of communication in the formation of an issue-based citizenry. Communication Monographs, 69(4), 296-310.
28.
Johnson-Cartee, K.S., & Copeland, G.A. (1989). Southern voters’ reaction to negative political ads in 1986. Journalism Quarterly , 66(4), 888-893.
29.
Just, M., Crigler, A., & Wallach, L. ( 1990). Thirty seconds or thirty minutes: What viewers learn from spot advertisements and candidate debates. Journal of Communication, 40(3), 120-133.
30.
Kahn, K.F., & Geer, J.G. ( 1994). Creating impressions: An experimental investigation of political advertising on television. Political Behavior, 16(1), 93-116.
31.
Kaid, L.L. ( 1994). Political advertising in the 1992 campaign. In R. E. Denton Jr. (Ed.), The 1992 presidential campaign (pp. 111-127). Westport, CT: Praeger.
32.
Kaid, L.L. ( 1998). Videostyle and the effects of the 1996 presidential campaign advertising. In R. E. Denton Jr. (Ed.), The 1996 presidential campaign: A communication perspective (pp. 143-159). Westport, CT: Praeger.
33.
Kaid, L.L. ( 2001). Technodistortions and effects of the 2000 political advertising . American Behavioral Scientist, 44(12), 2370-2378.
34.
Kaid, L.L. ( 2002). Political advertising and information seeking: Comparing exposure via traditional and Internet channels. Journal of Advertising, 31(1), 27-36.
35.
Kaid, L.L. ( 2003). Effects of political information in the 2000 presidential campaign: Comparing traditional television and Internet exposure. American Behavioral Scientist, 46(5), 677-689.
36.
Kaid, L.L. ( 2004). Measuring candidate images with semantic differentials . In K. L. Hacker (Ed.), Presidential candidate images (pp. 231-236). Westport, CT: Praeger.
37.
Kaid, L.L. ( 2009). Videostyle in the 2008 presidential campaign. In R. E. Denton (Ed.), The 2008 presidential campaign: A communication perspective. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
38.
Kaid, L.L., & Boydston, J. ( 1987). An experimental study of the effectiveness of negative political advertisements. Communication Quarterly, 35(2), 193-201.
39.
Kaid, L.L., & Chanslor, M. ( 1995). Changing candidate image: The effects of television advertising . In K. Hacker (Ed.), Candidate images in presidential election campaigns (pp. 83-97). New York, NY : Praeger.
40.
Kaid, L.L., Chanslor, M., & Hovind, M. ( 1992). The influence of program and commercial type on political advertising effectiveness. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 36(3), 303-320.
41.
Kaid, L.L., & Holtz-Bacha, C. (2000). Gender differences in response to televised political broadcasts: A multicountry comparison. Harvard Journal of International Press/Politics, 5(2), 17-29.
42.
Kaid, L.L., & Johnston, A. ( 2001). Videostyle in presidential campaigns. Westport, CT: Praeger/ Greenwood .
43.
Kaid, L.L., Landreville, K.D., Postelnicu, M., & Martin, J.D. ( 2005, May). Enhancing information efficacy for young voters: The effects of political advertising and debates. Paper presented atthe International Communication Association Convention, New York, NY.
44.
Kaid, L.L., Leland, C.L., & Whitney, S. ( 1992). The impact of televised political ads: Evoking viewer responses in the 1988 presidential campaign. Southern Communication Journal, 57, 285-292.
45.
Kaid, L.L., McKinney, M.S., & Tedesco, J.C. ( 2000). Civic dialogue in the 1996 presidential campaign: Candidate, media, and public voices. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
46.
Kaid, L.L., McKinney, M.S., & Tedesco, J.C. ( 2004, November). Information efficacy and young voters. Paper presented at the National Communication Association Conference , Chicago, IL.
47.
Kaid, L.L., McKinney, M.S., & Tedesco, J.C. ( 2007). Political information efficacy and young voters. American Behavioral Scientist, 50(9), 1093-1111.
48.
Kaid, L.L., & Postelnicu, M. (2005). Political advertising and responses of young voters: Comparison of traditional television and Internet messages. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(2), 265-278.
49.
Kaid, L.L., Postelnicu, M., Landreville, K., Yun, H.J., & LeGrange, A.G. (2007). The effects of political advertising on young voters. American Behavioral Scientist , 50(9), 1137-1151.
50.
Kaid, L.L., & Sanders, K.R. ( 1978). Political television commercials: An experimental study of the type and length. Communication Research, 5(1), 57-70.
51.
Kaid, L.L., & Tedesco, J.C. ( 1999). Presidential candidate presentation: Videostyle in the 1996 presidential spots. In L. L. Kaid & D. G. Bystrom (Eds.), The electronic election: Perspectives on the 1996 campaign communication (pp. 209-221). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
52.
Lau, R.R., & Redlawsk, D.P. (2000). Advantages and disadvantages of cognitive heuristics in political decision making. American Journal of Political Science, 45(4), 951-971.
53.
Lemert, J.B., Wanta, W., & Lee, T. ( 1999). Party identification and negative advertising in a U.S . Senate election. Journal of Communication, 49(2), 123-134.
54.
Lodge, M., McGraw, K.M., Conover, P.J., Feldman, S., & Miller, A.H. ( 1991). Where is the schema? Critiques. American Political Science Review, 85(4), 1357-1380.
55.
Lodge, M., McGraw, K.M., & Stroh, P. ( 1989). An impression-driven model of candidate evaluation. American Political Science Review, 83(2), 399-420.
56.
Lodge, M., Steenbergen, M.R., & Brau, S. ( 1995). The responsive voter: Campaign information and the dynamics of candidate evaluation. American Political Science Review , 89(2), 309-326.
57.
Martinelli, K.A., & Chaffee, S.H. ( 1995). Measuring new-voter learning via three channels of political information. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 72(1), 18-32.
58.
McCombs, M., Lopez-Escobar, E., & Llamas, J.P. ( 2000). Setting the agenda of attributes in the 1996 Spanish general election. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 77-92.
59.
McPherson, J.M., Welch, S., & Clark, C. ( 1977). The stability and reliability of political efficacy: Using path analysis to test alternative models. American Political Science Review, 71(2), 509-521.
60.
Niemi, R.G., Craig, S.C., & Mattei, F. ( 1991). Measuring internal political efficacy in the 1988 National Election Study. American Political Science Review, 85(4), 1407-1413.
61.
Patterson, T.E., & McClure, R.D. ( 1976). The unseeing eye: Myth of television power in politics . New York, NY: Putnam.
62.
Perloff, R.M., & Kinsey, D. ( 1992). Political advertising as seen by consultants and journalists . Journal of Advertising Research, 36(3), 53-60.
63.
Petty, R.E., & Cacioppo, J.T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
64.
Pinkleton, B.E., Um, N.H., & Austin, E.W. ( 2002). An exploration of the effects of negative advertising on political decision making. Journal of Advertising, 31(1), 13-25.
65.
Plutzer, E. ( 2002). Becoming a habitual voter: Inertia, resources, and growth in young adult-hood. American Political Science Review, 96(1), 41-56.
66.
Putnam, R.D. ( 1995). Tuning in, tuning out: The strange disappearance of social capital in America. PS: Political Science and Politics, 28(4), 664-683.
67.
Rahn, W.M., & Hirshorn, R.M. (1999). Political advertising and public mood: A study of children’s political orientations. Political Communication, 16(4), 387-407.
68.
Riggle, E.D.B., & Johnson, M.M.S. (1996). Age difference in political decision making: Strategies for evaluating political candidates. Political Behavior, 18(1), 99-118.
69.
Riker, W., & Ordeshook, P. ( 1968). A theory of the calculus of voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25-42.
70.
Roberts, M. ( 1992). Predicting voter behavior via the agenda-setting tradition . Journalism Quarterly, 69(4), 878-892.
71.
Rosenstone, S.J., Kinder, D.R., Miller, W.E., & the National Election Studies. ( 1997). American National Election Study 1996: Pre- and post-election survey [Computer file]. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for Political Studies (Producer) and Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (Distributor).
72.
Rothschild, M.L., & Ray, M.L. ( 1974). Involvement and political advertising effect: An exploratory experiment. Communication Research, 1(3), 264-285.
73.
Ruthenberg, J. ( 2008, October 18). Nearing record, Obama’s ad effort swamps McCain. New York Times, p. A1. Retrieved January 15, 2009, from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/18/us/politics/18ads.html?fta=y
74.
Tedesco, J.C., & Kaid, L.L. ( 2003). Style and effects of the Bush and Gore spots. In L. L. Kaid, J. C. Tedesco, D. G. Bystrom, & M. S. McKinney (Eds.), The millennium election: Communication in the 2000 campaign (pp. 5-16). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
75.
Tinkham, S.F., & Weaver-Lariscy, R.A. (1993). A diagnostic approach to assessing the impact of negative political television commercials. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 37(4), 377-400.
76.
TNS Media Intelligence/CMG (2004, November 1). U.S. political advertising spending reaches $1.45 billion . Retrieved December 20, 2004, from http://www.tnsmicmr.com/news/2004/110104.html
77.
TNS Media Intelligence/CMG (2008, December). Election by the numbers. 2008 race for the White House: A made-for-TV Election. Retrieved January 18, 2009, from http://www.tnsmicmag.com/news.asp
78.
Valentino, N.A., Hutchings, V.L., & Williams, D. ( 2004). The impact of political advertising on knowledge, Internet information seeking, and preference. Journal of Communication , 54(2), 337-354.
79.
West, D.M. ( 1993). Air wars: Television advertising in election campaigns, 1952-1992. Washington, DC: CQ Press .
80.
Zhao, X., & Bleske, G.L. ( 1995). Measurement effects in comparing voter learning from television news and campaign advertisements. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 72(1), 72-83.
