Individual preferences for same-ethnic friends contribute to persistent segregation of adolescents’ friendship networks. Yet, we know surprisingly little about the mechanisms behind ethnic homophily. Prior research suggests that ethnic homophily is ubiquitous, but a social identity perspective indicates that strong ingroup identification drives ingroup favoritism. Combining a social identity perspective with a relational approach, we ask whether the presumed increased homophily of high identifiers extends to all ingroup members, or whether it is conditional on the strength of same-ethnics’ identification. We propose that the strength of ethnic identification affects not only how much individuals desire same-ethnic friends, but also how attractive they are as potential friends to others. Fitting stochastic actor-oriented models to German adolescent school-based network panel data, we find that ethnic homophily is driven by an interplay of peers’ ethnic identification: high identifiers befriend same-ethnic peers who share their strong ethnic identification, while excluding same-ethnic low identifiers. Low identifiers, in turn, tend to avoid befriending inter-ethnic high identifiers. Our relational approach reveals that ethnic homophily is hardly ubiquitous but requires strong identification of both parties of a (potential) friendship.
BrechwaldWhitney A.PrinsteinMitchell J. 2011. “Beyond Homophily: A Decade of Advances in Understanding Peer Influence Processes.” Journal of Research on Adolescence21(1):166–79.
10.
BrewerMarilynn B.1979. “In-group Bias in the Minimal Intergroup Situation: A Cognitive-Motivational Analysis.” Psychological Bulletin86(2):307–24.
11.
BrownRupert. 2000. “Social Identity Theory: Past Achievements, Current Problems and Future Challenges.” European Journal of Social Psychology30(6):745–78.
12.
ByrneDonn. 1971. The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
13.
ChanAlessandraPoulinFrançois. 2007. “Monthly Changes in the Composition of Friendship Networks in Early Adolescence.” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly53(4):578–602.
14.
DaviesKristinTroppLinda R.AronArthurPettigrewThomas F.WrightStephen C. 2011. “Cross-Group Friendships and Intergroup Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Personality and Social Psychology Review15(4):332–51.
15.
DeauxKayMartinDaniela. 2003. “Interpersonal Networks and Social Categories: Specifying Levels of Context in Identity.” Social Psychology Quarterly66(2):101–17.
16.
DiMaggioPaulGaripFiliz. 2012. “Network Effects and Social Inequality.” Annual Review of Sociology38:93–118.
17.
EllemersNaomiKortekaasPaulienOuwerkerkJaap W. 1999. “Self-Categorisation, Commitment to the Group and Group Self-Esteem as Related but Distinct Aspects of Social Identity.” European Journal of Social Psychology29(23):371–89.
18.
EllisonChristopher G.PowersDaniel A. 1994. “The Contact Hypothesis and Racial Attitudes among Black Americans.” Social Science Quarterly75(2):385–400.
19.
GanzeboomHarry B.de GraafPaul M.TreimanDonald J. 1992. “A Standard International Socio-economic Index of Occupational Status.” Social Science Research21(1):1–56.
20.
GoodreauSteven M.KittsJames A.MorrisMartina. 2009. “Birds of a Feather, or Friend of a Friend? Using Exponential Random Graph Models to Investigate Adolescent Social Networks.” Demography46(1):103–25.
21.
HedströmPeterManzoGianluca. 2015. “Recent Trends in Agent-Based Computational Research: A Brief Introduction.” Sociological Methods & Research44(2):179–85.
22.
HofstraBasCortenRensevan TubergenFrankEllisonNicole B. 2017. “Sources of Segregation in Social Networks: A Novel Approach using Facebook.” American Sociological Review82(3):625–56.
23.
HuismanMarkSnijdersTom A. B. 2003. “Statistical Analysis of Longitudinal Network Data with Changing Composition.” Sociological Methods & Research32(2):253–87.
24.
HuismanMarkSteglichChristian. 2008. “Treatment of Non-response in Longitudinal Network Studies.” Social Networks30(4):297–308.
25.
JacksonJay W.2002. “Intergroup Attitudes as a Function of Different Dimensions of Group Identification and Perceived Intergroup Conflict.” Self and Identity1(1):11–33.
26.
JugertPhilippLeszczenskyLarsPinkSebastian. 2019. “Differential Influence of Same- and Cross-Ethnic Friends on Ethnic-Racial Identity Development in Early Adolescence.” Child Development, Early View (https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13240).
27.
KalmijnMatthijs. 1998. “Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, Trends.” Annual Review of Sociology24:395–421.
28.
KandelDenise B.1978. “Homophily, Selection, and Socialization in Adolescent Friendships.” American Journal of Sociology84(2):427–36.
29.
KeuschniggMarcLovsjöNicalsHedströmPeter. 2018. “Analytical Sociology and Computational Social Science.” Journal of Computational Social Science1(1):3–14.
30.
KiangLisaWitkowMelissa R.BaldelomarOscar A.FuligniAndrew J. 2010. “Change in Ethnic Identity across the High School Years among Adolescents with Latin American, Asian, and European Backgrounds.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence39(6):683–93.
31.
LazarsfeldPaul F.MertonRobert K. 1954. “Friendship as a Social Process.” Pp. 18–66 in Freedom and Control in Modern Society, edited by BergerM.AbelT.PageC. H. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
32.
LeszczenskyLars. 2018. “Young Immigrants’ Host Country Identification and Their Friendships with Natives: Does Relative Group Size Matter?”Social Science Research70:163–75.
33.
LeszczenskyLarsFlacheAndreasStarkTobias H.MunniksmaAnke. 2018. “The Relation between Ethnic Classroom Composition and Adolescents’ Ethnic Pride.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations21(7):997–1013.
34.
LeszczenskyLarsGräbs SantiagoAitana. 2015. “The Development and Test of a Measure of Youth’s Ethnic and National Identity.” Methods, Data, Analyses9(1):87–110.
35.
LeszczenskyLarsPinkSebastian. 2015. “Ethnic Segregation of Friendship Networks in School: Testing a Rational Choice Argument of Differences in Ethnic Homophily between Classroom- and Grade-Level Networks.” Social Networks42(1):18–26.
36.
LeszczenskyLarsStarkTobias H.FlacheAndreasMunniksmaAnke. 2016. “Disentangling the Relation between Young Immigrants’ Host Country Identification and Their Friendships with Natives.” Social Networks44:179–89.
37.
LewisKevin. 2015. “How Networks Form: Homophily, Opportunity, and Balance.” Pp. 1–14 in Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, edited by ScottR. A.KosslynS. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. (http://doi.wiley.com/ 10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0164).
38.
McFarlandDaniel A.MoodyJamesDiehlDavidSmithJeffrey A.ThomasReuben J. 2014. “Network Ecology and Adolescent Social Structure.” American Sociological Review79(6):1088–121.
39.
McFarlandDaniel A.PalsHeili. 2005. “Motives and Contexts of Identity Change: A Case for Network Effects.” Social Psychology Quarterly68(4):289–315.
40.
McPhersonMillerSmith-LovinLynnCookJames M. 2001. “Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks.” Annual Review of Sociology27:415–44.
41.
MoodyJames. 2001. “Race, School Integration, and Friendship Segregation in America.” American Journal of Sociology107(3):679–716.
42.
MouwTedEntwisleBarbara. 2006. “Residential Segregation and Interracial Friendship in Schools.” American Journal of Sociology112(2):394–441.
43.
MunniksmaAnkeScheepersPeerStarkTobias H.TolsmaJochem. 2017. “The Impact of Adolescents’ Classroom and Neighborhood Ethnic Diversity on Same- and Cross-Ethnic Friendships within Classrooms.” Journal of Research on Adolescence27(1):20–33.
44.
PettigrewThomas F.TroppLinda R. 2006. “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology90(5):751–83.
45.
PhinneyJean S.1990. “Ethnic Identity in Adolescents and Adults: Review of Research.” Psychological Bulletin108(3):499–514.
46.
PhinneyJean S.FergusonDebra L.TateJerry D. 1997. “Intergroup Attitudes among Ethnic Minority Adolescents: A Causal Model.” Child Development68(5):955–69.
47.
PhinneyJean S.OngAnthony D. 2007. “Conceptualization and Measurement of Ethnic Identity: Current Status and Future Directions.” Journal of Counseling Psychology54(3):271–81.
48.
PortesAlejandro. 1984. “The Rise of Ethnicity: Determinants of Ethnic Perceptions among Cuban Exiles in Miami.” American Sociological Review49(3):383–97.
49.
QuillianLincolnCampbellMary E. 2003. “Beyond Black and White: The Present and Future of Multiracial Friendship Segregation.” American Sociological Review68(4):540–66.
50.
ReeskensTimWrightMatthew. 2014. “Host-Country Patriotism among European Immigrants: A Comparative Study of Its Individual and Societal Roots.” Ethnic and Racial Studies37(14):2493–511.
51.
RipleyRuth M.SnijdersTom A. B.BodaZsófiaVörösAndrasPreciadoPaulina. 2019. Manual for RSiena. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford, Department of Statistics, Nuffield College.
52.
RiveraMark T.SoderstromSara B.UzziBrian. 2010. “Dynamics of Dyads in Social Networks: Assortative, Relational, and Proximity Mechanisms.” Annual Review of Sociology36:91–115.
53.
SantosCarlos E.KornienkoOlgaRivas-DrakeDeborah. 2017. “Peer Influence on Ethnic-Racial Identity Development: A Multi-Site Investigation.” Child Development88(3):725–42.
54.
SchaeferDavid R.KornienkoOlgaFoxAndrew M. 2011. “Misery Does Not Love Company: Network Selection Mechanisms and Depression Homophily.” American Sociological Review76(5):764–85.
55.
SmithSanne. 2018. “Befriending the Same Differently: Ethnic, Socioeconomic Status, and Gender Differences in Same-Ethnic Friendship.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies44(11):1858–80.
56.
SmithSanneMaasInekevan TubergenFrank. 2014. “Ethnic Ingroup Friendships in Schools: Testing the By-Product Hypothesis in England, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden.” Social Networks39(1):33–45.
57.
SmithSanneVan TubergenFrankMaasInekeMcFarlandDaniel A. 2016. “Ethnic Composition and Friendship Segregation: Differential Effects for Adolescent Natives and Immigrants.” American Journal of Sociology121(4):1223–72.
58.
SnijdersTom A. B.LomiAlessandro. 2018. “Beyond Homophily: Incorporating Actor Variables in Actor-Oriented Network Models.” (https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.07172).
59.
SnijdersTom A. B.SteglichChristian E. G. 2015. “Representing Micro–Macro Linkages by Actor-Based Dynamic Network Models.” Sociological Methods & Research44(2):222–71.
60.
SnijdersTom A. B.van de BuntGerhard G.SteglichChristian E. G. 2010. “Introduction to Stochastic Actor-Based Models for Network Dynamics.” Social Networks32(1):44–60.
61.
StaerkléChristianSidaniusJimGreenEva G. T.MolinaLudwin E. 2010. “Ethnic Minority-Majority Asymmetry in National Attitudes around the World: A Multilevel Analysis.” Political Psychology31(4):491–519.
62.
StarkTobias H.FlacheAndreas. 2012. “The Double Edge of Common Interest: Ethnic Segregation as an Unintended Byproduct of Opinion Homophily.” Sociology of Education85(2):179–99.
63.
SteglichChristian E. G.SnijdersTom A. B.PearsonMichael. 2010. “Dynamic Networks and Behavior: Separating Selection from Influence.” Sociological Methodology40(1):329–93.
64.
SyedMoinJuanMary Joyce D. 2012. “Birds of an Ethnic Feather? Ethnic Identity Homophily among College-Age Friends.” Journal of Adolescence35(6):1505–14.
65.
TajfelHenri. 1978. “Social Categorization, Social Identity, and Social Comparison.” Pp. 61–76 in Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by TajfelH. London, UK: Academic Press.
66.
TajfelHenriBilligMichael G.BundyRobert P.FlamentClaude. 1971. “Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior.” European Journal of Social Psychology1(2):149–78.
67.
TajfelHenriTurnerJohn C. 1986. “Social Categorization, Social Identity, and Social Comparison.” Pp. 61–76 in Differentiation between Social Groups, edited by TajfelH. London, UK: Academic Press.
68.
TerryDeborah J.HoggMichael A. 1996. “Group Norms and the Attitude-Behavior Relationship: A Role for Group Identification.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin22(8):776–93.
69.
Umaña-TaylorAdriana J.QuintanaStephen M.LeeRichard M.CrossWilliam E.Jr.Rivas-DrakeDeborahSchwartzSeth J.SyedMoinYipTiffanySeatonEleanor. 2014. “Ethnic and Racial Identity during Adolescence and into Young Adulthood: An Integrated Conceptualization.” Child Development85(1):21–39.
70.
Umaña-TaylorAdriana J.SchaeferDavid R.MedinaMichael. 2017. “Ethnic-Racial Identity and Friendships in Early Adolescence.” Child Development88(3):710–24.
71.
VerkuytenMaykel. 2005. The Social Psychology of Ethnic Identity. London, UK: Psychology Press.
72.
VerkuytenMaykelKinketBarbara. 2000. “Social Distances in a Multi Ethnic Society: The Ethnic Hierarchy among Dutch Preadolescents.” Social Psychology Quarterly63(1):75–85.
73.
VerkuytenMaykelMartinovicBorja. 2012. “Immigrants’ National Identification: Meanings, Determinants, and Consequences.” Social Issues and Policy Review6(1):82–112.
74.
WimmerAndreasLewisKevin. 2010. “Beyond and Below Racial Homophily: ERG Models of a Friendship Network Documented on Facebook.” American Journal of Sociology116(2):583–642.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
