Since its inception, America’s system of public education has faced many challenges. One of its more important challenges has been how to teach children from diverse backgrounds and cultures. As a society that prides itself on a democratic ideology, cultural diversity and schooling are not trivial issues. One of the more significant diversity topics has been the presence of English-language learners (ELL) in American public schools. This article introduces the topic of ELL students and the education and education-related issues surrounding ELL students. For researchers and policy makers deeply steeped in the issues surrounding ELL students, the issues and concerns raised in this article are familiar. However, for the vast majority of other researchers and policy makers, these issues are not familiar and may have important impact on their own research agendas.
Abedi, J. (2001). Assessment and accommodations for English language learners: Issues and recommendations. Los Angeles: Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, UCLA.
2.
Abedi, J., & Leon, S. (1999). Impact of students’ language background on content-based performance: Analyses of extant data. Los Angeles: Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, UCLA.
3.
Abedi, J., Leon, S., & Mirocha, J. (2001). Impact of students’ language background on standardized achievement test results: Analyses of extant data. Los Angeles: Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, UCLA.
4.
Abedi, J., & Lord, C. (2001). The language factor in mathematics tests. Applied Measurement in Education, 14, 219-234.
5.
August, D., Calderon, M., & Carlo, M. (2002). Transfer of skills from Spanish to English: A study of young learners. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
6.
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (1997). Improving schooling for language minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
7.
Baker, K. (1996). What bilingual education research tells us. In J. Amselle (Ed.), The failure of bilingual education (pp. 29-32). Washington, DC: Center for Equal Opportunity.
8.
Berman, P., Chambers, J., Gandara, P., McLaughlin, B., Minicucci, C., Nelson, B., et al. (1992). Meeting the challenge of diversity: An evaluation of programs for pupils with limited proficiency in English. Berkeley, CA: BW Associates.
9.
Berman, P., McLaughlin, B., McLeod, B., Minicuccie, C., Nelson, B., & Woodworth, K. (1995). School reform and student diversity: Case studies of exemplary practices for LEP students. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning and BW Associates.
10.
Buriel, R. (1983). Teacher-student interactions and their relationship to student achievement: A comparison of Mexican-American and Anglo-American children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(6), 889-897.
11.
Butler, F. A., & Castellon-Wellington, M. (2000). Students’ concurrent performance on tests of English language proficiency and academic achievement. In Validity of administering large-scale content assessments to English language learners: An investigation from three perspectives (Final Deliverable to Office for Educational Research and Improvement/Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Acquisition; pp. 51-83). Los Angeles: Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, UCLA.
12.
Calderon, M., Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., & Slavin, R. (1996). Effects of bilingual cooperative integrated reading and composition on students’ transition from Spanish to English reading. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
13.
Canales, J. (1992). Innovative practices in the identification of LEP students. In proceedings of the Second National Research Symposium on Limited English Proficient Student Issues: Focus on Evaluation and Measurement (pp. 89-122). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs.
14.
Cardoza, D. (1984). The reclassification survey: A study of entry and exit classification procedures. Los Alamitos, CA: National Center for Bilingual Education.
15.
Carter, T., & Chatfield, M. (1986). Effective bilingual schools: Implications for policy and practice. American Journal of Education, 95, 200-232.
16.
Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning. (1999). The status of the teaching profession, 1999: Research findings and policy recommendations. Retrieved October 9, 2006, from www.cftl.org/documents/stp1999full.pdf
17.
Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence. (1999). Standards and indicators. April 14, 2005, from www.crede.berkeley.edu/standards/standards.html
18.
Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing. (2002, Spring). CRESST Newsletter, Special Issue! “No Child Left Behind.” Retrieved April 14, 2002, from www.cse.ucla.edu/products/newsletters/clspring02final.pdf
19.
Chamot, A. U., Dale, M., O’Malley, J. M., & Spanos, G. (1992). Learning and problem solving strategies of ESL students. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, 1-33.
20.
Chiswick, B. R. (1991). Speaking, reading, and earnings among low-skilled immigrants. Journal of Labor Economics, 9, 149-170.
21.
Chiswick, B. R. (1999). Are immigrants favorably self-selected?American Economic Review, 89, 181-185.
22.
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1992). Language in the immigrant labor market. In B. R. Chiswick (Ed.), Immigration, language and ethnicity: Canada and the United States (pp. 229-296). Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute.
23.
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1995). The endogeneity between language and earnings: International analyses. Journal of Labor Economics, 13, 246-288.
24.
Chiswick, B. R., & Miller, P. W. (1996). Ethnic networks and language proficiency among immigrants. Journal of Population Studies, 9, 19-35.
25.
Cohen, D. C. (1994). Teacher their families well. Education Week, 14, 30-32.
26.
Comer, J. P. (1984). Home-school relationships as they affect the academic success of children. Education and Urban Society, 16, 323-337.
27.
Cummins, J. (1981a). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2, 132-149.
28.
Cummins, J. (1981b). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University.
29.
Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. San Diego, CA: College Hill Press.
30.
Crawford, J. (2002). Section G: Programs for English language learners (Title III). Retrieved April 14, 2005, from http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD
31.
Delpit, L. (1995). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: Free Press.
32.
Dianda, M., & Flaherty, J. (1995). Effects of success for all on reading achievement of first graders in California bilingual programs. Los Alamitos, CA: The Southwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
33.
Dulay, H., Burt, H., & Hernandez-Chavez, E. (1978). The process of becoming bilingual. In S. Singh & J. Lynch (Eds.), Diagnostic procedures in hearing, language, and speech (pp. 251-304). Baltimore: University Park Press.
34.
Edelsky, C., Draper, K., & Smith, K. (1983). Hookin’ em in at the start of school in a ‘whole language’ classroom. Anthropology and Educational Quarterly, 14, 257-281.
35.
Escamilla, K. (1994). The sociolinguistic environment in a bilingual school: A case study introduction. Bilingual Research Journal, 18, 21-47.
36.
Espenshade, T. J., & Fu, H. (1997). An analysis of English-language proficiency among U.S. immigrants. American Sociological Review, 62, 288-305.
37.
Espinosa, K., & Massey, D. S. (1997). Determinants of English proficiency among Mexican immigrants to the United States. International Migration Review, 31, 28-50.
38.
Ferreiro, E., & Teberosky, A. (1982). Literacy before schooling. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
39.
Gandara, P. (1999). Review of research on the instruction of limited English proficient students: A report to the California legislature. April 14, 2004, from the University of California Language Minority Institute, www.lmri.ucsb.edu/resdiss/pdf_files/Gandara.pdf
40.
Gandara, P., & Maxwell-Jolly, J. (2000). Preparing teachers for diversity: A dilemma of quality and quantity. Santa Cruz, CA: The Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning.
41.
Gandara, P., Maxwell-Jolly, J., & Driscoll, A. (2005). Listening to teachers of English language learners. Santa Cruz, CA: Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning.
42.
Gandara, P., & Merino, B. (1993). Measuring the outcomes of LEP programs: Test scores, exit rates, and other mythological data. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15, 320-338.
43.
Garcia, E. E. (1996). Preparing instructional professionals for linguistically and culturally diverse student. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 802-813). New York: Simon & Schuster.
44.
Genishi, A. C., & Dyson, A. H. (1984). Language assessment in the early years. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
45.
Gersten, R. (1996). Literacy instruction for language minority students: The transition years. Elementary School Journal, 96, 228-244.
46.
Goldenberg, C., & Gallimore, R. (1991). Local knowledge, research knowledge, and educational change: A case study of first-grade Spanish reading improvement. Educational Researcher, 20, 2-14.
47.
Goldenberg, C., & Sullivan, J. (1994). Making change happen in a language minority school: A Search for coherence (Educational Practice Report No. 13). Santa Cruz, CA: Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence.
48.
Haberman, M. (1996). Selecting and preparing culturally competent teachers for urban schools. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 747-760). New York: Simon & Schuster.
49.
Hakuta, K. (1998). Supplemental declaration in plaintiff’s legal brief requesting preliminary injunction on Proposition 227, U.S. District Court, San Francisco, the Honorable Charles A. Legge presiding, July 15.
50.
Hakuta, K., & Beatty, A. (2000). Testing English-language learners in U.S. schools. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
51.
Hakuta, K., Butler, Y. G., & Witt, D. (2000). How long does it take English-Language learners to attain proficiency? Unpublished manuscript, Stanford University, CA.
52.
Hanushek, E. A. (1986). The economics of schooling: Production and efficiency in public schools. Journal of Economic Literature, 24, 1141-1177.
53.
Henderson, R. W., & Landesman, E. M. (1992). Mathematics and middle school students of Mexican descent: The effects of thematically integrated instruction (Research Report No. 5). Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
54.
Hernandez, S. (1991). Assisted performance in reading comprehension strategies with non-English proficient students. Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 8, 91-112.
55.
Kossoudji, S. A. (1988). English language ability and the labor market opportunities of Hispanic and East Asian immigrant men. Journal of Labor Economics, 6, 205-228.
56.
Krashen, S., Long, M., & Scarcella, R. (1979). Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 573-582.
57.
La Celle-Peterson, M. W., & C. Rivera. (1994). Is it real for kids? A framework for equitable assessment policies for English-Language learners. Harvard Education Review, 64, 55-75.
58.
Laosa, L. M. (1977). Inequality in the classroom: Observational research on teacher-student interactions. Aztlan International Journal of Chicano Studies Research, 8, 51-67.
59.
Levin, H. M. (1996). Economics of school reform for at-risk students. In E. A. Hanushek & D. W. Jorgenson (Eds.), Improving America’s schools: The role of incentives (pp. 225-240). Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy, National Research Council.
60.
Lucas, T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language-minority students: An exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60, 315-340.
61.
Mace-Matluck, R., Alexander-Kasparik, R., & Queen, P. (1998). Through the golden door: Educational approaches for immigrant adolescents with limited schooling. McHenry, IL: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.
62.
McLaughlin, B. (1985). Second-language acquisition in childhood, Vol. 2: Schoolage children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
63.
McLaughlin, B., Blanchard, A., & Osanai, Y. (1995). Assessing language development in bilingual preschool children (National Clearinghouse of Bilingual Education Program Information Guide Series, No. 22). Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse of Bilingual Education.
64.
Milk, R., Mercado, C., & Sapiens, A. (1992). Rethinking the education of teachers of language minority children: Developing reflective teachers for changing schools (National Clearinghouse of Bilingual Education Focus: Occasional Papers in Bilingual Education, No. 6). Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
65.
Minicucci, C., & Olsen, L. (1992). Programs for secondary limited English proficient students: A California study (Focus No. 5). Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
66.
Moll, L. C. (1988). Some key issues in teaching Latino students. Language Arts, 65, 465-472.
67.
Moll, L. C., Diaz, E., Estrada, E., & Lopes, L. (1981). The construction of learning environments in two languages. San Diego, CA: Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition.
68.
Muniz-Swicegood, M. (1994). The effects of metacognitive reading strategy training on the reading performance and student reading analysis strategies of third-grade bilingual students. Bilingual Research Journal, 18, 83-97.
69.
National Research Council. (1999a). High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. In J. P. Heubert & R. M. Hauser (Eds.), Committee on appropriate test use. Board on Testing and Assessment, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
70.
National Research Council. (1999b). Testing, teaching, and learning: A guide for states and school districts. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
71.
Nathenson-Mejia, S. (1994). Bridges between home and school: Literacy building activities for non native English speaking homes. Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 14, 149-164.
72.
No Child Left Behind Act. (2001). Public Law No. 107-110.
73.
Oller, J. (1980). Research in language testing. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
74.
Pease-Alvarez, L., Garcia, E. E., & Espinosa, P. (1991). Effective instruction for language minority students: An early childhood case study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 347-361.
75.
Rivera, C., Stansfield, C., Scialdone, L., & Sharkey, M. (2000). An analysis of state policies for the inclusion and accommodation of English language learners in state assessment programs during 1998-1999. Arlington, VA: The George Washington University, Center for Equity and Excellence in Education.
76.
Romo, H., & Falbo, T. (1996). Latino high school graduation: Defying the odds. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
77.
Roseberry, A. S., Warren, B., & Conant, F. R. (1992). Appropriating scientific discourse: Findings from language minority classrooms. Journal of Learning Science, 2, 61-94.
78.
Rumberger, R. W. (2000). Educational outcomes and opportunities for English language learners. Santa Barbara: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
79.
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimer, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours: Secondary schools and their effects on children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
80.
Samaniego, F., & Eubank, L. (1991). A statistical analysis of California’s case study project in bilingual education (No. TR #208). Davis: University of California, Intercollegiate Division of Statistics.
81.
Saunders, W. M., & Goldenberg, C. (1999). The effects of a comprehensive language arts transition program on the literacy development of English learners. Retrieved October 16, 2006, from http://crede.berkeley.edu/research/llaa/1.5_upscaling.pdf
82.
Saville-Troike, M. (1987). Bilingual discourse: The negotiation of meaning without a common code. Linguistics, 25, 81-106.
83.
Saville-Troike, M. (1991). Teaching and testing for academic achievement: The role of language development (Occasional Paper No. 4). Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
84.
Scovel, T. (1989). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. New York: Newbury House.
85.
Shore, J. (2002). Language development attributes chart. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instructional Programs.
86.
Short, D. (1997). Newcomers: Language and academic programs for recent immigrants: A research summary. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
87.
Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (1987). What works for students at risk: A research synthesis. Educational Leadership, 46, 4-17.
88.
Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Dolan, L., & Wasik, B. (1995, April). Success for all: A summary of the research. Paper presented at the annual meetings of the American Education Research Association. San Francisco.
89.
Slavin, R. L., & Yampolsky, R. (1992). Success for all. Effects on students with limited English proficiency: A three-year evaluation (Report No. 29). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantaged Students.
90.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Glass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
91.
Tharp, R. G. (1982). The effective instruction of comprehension: Results and description of the Kamehameha Early Education Program. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 503-527.
92.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
93.
Thurlow, M., Liu, K., Erickson, R., Spicuzza, R., & El Sawaf, H. (1996). Accommodation strategies for students with limited English proficiency: Analysis of guidelines for states with graduation exams (Minnesota Report No. 6). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
94.
Tikunoff, W. J. (1983). An emerging description of successful bilingual instruction: Executive summary of part I of Significant Bilingual Instructional Features Study. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.
95.
Tikunoff, W. J., Ward, B. A., van Broekhuizen, D., Romero, M., Castaneda, L. V., Lucas, T., et al. (1991). Final report: A descriptive study of significant features of exemplary special alternative instructional programs. Los Alamitos, CA: Southwest Regional Educational Laboratory.
96.
Tomas Rivera Center. (1993). Resolving a crisis in education: Latino teachers for tomorrow’s classrooms. Claremont, CA: Author.
97.
U.S. General Accounting Office. (2001). Meeting the needs of students with limited English proficiency. Washington, DC: Author.
98.
Verdugo, R. R., Greenberg, N. M., Henderson, R. D., Uribe, O., Jr., & Schneider, J. M. (1997). School governance regimes and teachers’ job satisfaction: Bureaucracy, legitimacy, and community. Educational Administration Quarterly, 33, 38-66.
99.
Verdugo, R. R., & Saucedo, T. (2005, March). The demography of ELL students: Concentration, segregation, and exposure. Paper presented at the annual Hispanic Issues Conference. Washington, DC: National Education Association.
100.
Verdugo, R. R., & Schneider, J. M. (2004, January). School quality, safe schools: An empirical analysis. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Congress on School Effectiveness and Improvement. Barcelona, Spain.
101.
Weinstein, R. (1989). Perceptions of classroom processes and student motivation: Children’s views of self-fulfilling prophecies. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education: Goals and cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 187-221). New York: Academic Press.
102.
Wong, L. F. (1976). The second time around: Cognitive and social strategies in second language acquisition. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, CA.
103.
Wong, L. F., Ammon, P., McLaughlin, B., & Ammon, M. (1985). Learning English through bilingual instruction (Final report). Berkeley: University of California.
104.
Zeichner, K. (1996). Educating teachers for cultural diversity. In K. Zeichner, S. Melnick, & M. L. Gomez (Eds.), Currents of reform in preservice teacher education (pp. 113-175). New York: Teachers College Press.
105.
Zhao, Y. (2002, August 5). Wave of pupils lacking English strain schools. New York Times. Retrieved October 16, 2006, from http://www.nytimes.com
