This article seeks to ascertain how implicit and explicit racial messages are constructed in televised political campaign advertisements. Utilizing a content analysis of 328 spots run in election contests between 1990 and 2000 where at least one candidate was African American, the authors provide results and analyses that demonstrate that both White and Black candidates are prone to utilizing racial messages. However, the authors show that a stark distinction exists between racial messages constructed by Whites and those by Black candidates.
Ansolabehere, S., & Iyengar, S. (1995). Going negative: How political advertisements shrink and polarize the electorate. New York: Free Press.
2.
Buzzi, G. (1968). Advertising: Its cultural and political effects . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
3.
Caliendo, S.M., & McIlwain, C.D. (2005). Race and political advertising . In S. J. Best & B. Radcliff (Ed.), Polling America: An encyclopedia of public opinion (pp. 641-646). Westport, CT: Praeger.
4.
Carsey, T.M. (1995). The contextual effects of race on White voter behavior: The 1989 New York City mayoral election. Journal of Politics, 57, 221-228.
5.
Cavanaugh, J.W. (1995). Media effects on voters: A panel study of the 1992 presidential election. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
6.
Clark, E.M., & Brock, T.C. (1994). Attention, attitude, and affect in response to advertising. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7.
Colleau, S.M., Glynn, K., Lybrand, S., Merelman, R.M., Mohan, P., & Wall, J.E. (1990). Symbolic racism in candidate evaluation: An experiment . Political Behavior, 12, 385-402.
8.
Glaser, J.M. (1996). Black and White perceptions of party differences . Political Behavior, 17, 155-177.
9.
Hajnal, Z.L. (2001). White residents, Black incumbents, and a declining racial divide. American Political Science Review, 95, 603-617.
10.
Halfbhinger, D.M. (2002, June 3). Generational battle turns nasty in Alabama primary. The New York Times, p. A10.
11.
Henry, P.J., & Sears, D.O. (2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23, 253-283.
12.
Howell, S.E., & McLean, W.P. (2001). Performance and race in evaluating Black mayors. Public Opinion Quarterly, 65, 321-343.
13.
Huckfeldt, R., & Kohfeld, C.W. (1989). Race and the decline of class in American politics . Champaign: University of Illinois .
14.
Jamieson, K.H., Waldman, P., & Sherr, S. (2000). Eliminate the negative? Categories of analysis for political advertisements. In J. A. Thurber , C. J. Nelson, & D. A. Dulio (Eds.), Crowded airwaves: Campaign advertising in elections (pp. 44-64). Washington, DC : Brookings Institution.
15.
Kaid, L.L., & Johnston, A. (1991). Negative versus positive television advertising in U.S. presidential campaigns, 1960-1988. Journal of Communication , 41, 53-64.
16.
Kaufmann, K.M. (2003). Black and Latino voters in Denver: Responses to each other's political leadership. Political Science Quarterly , 118, 107-125.
17.
McDermott, M.L. (1998). Race and gender cues in low-stimulus elections . Political Research Quarterly, 41, 895-918.
18.
Mendelberg, T. (2001). The race card: Campaign strategy, implicit messages, and the norm of equality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
19.
Postman, N. (1985). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. New York: Viking.
20.
Schwartz, T. (1974). The responsive chord. New York : Anchor.
21.
Sherrow, V. (1992). Image and substance: The media in U.S. elections . Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press .
22.
Sigelman, C.K., Sigelman, L., Walkosz, B.J., & Nitz, M. (1995). Black candidates, White voters: Understanding racial bias in political perceptions. American Journal of Political Science, 39, 243-265.
23.
Terkildsen, N. (1993). When White voters evaluate Black candidates: The processing implications of candidate skin color, prejudice, and self-monitoring . American Journal of Political Science, 37, 1032-1053.
24.
Valentino, N.A., Hutchings, V.L., & White, I. (2002). Cues that matter: How political ads prime racial attitudes during campaigns. American Political Science Review , 96, 75-90.
25.
Valentino, N.A., Traugott, M.W., & Hutchings, V. (2002). Group cues and ideological constraint: A replication of political advertising effects studies in the lab and in the field. Political Communication, 19, 29-48.
26.
Williams, L.F. (1990). White/Black perceptions of the electability of Black political candidates. National Political Science Review , 2, 145-164.