Five studies using a variety of experimental approaches and secondary data sets show that a visual property present in all brand logos—the degree of (a)symmetry—can interact with brand personality to affect brand equity. Specifically, compared with symmetrical logos, asymmetrical logos tend to be more arousing, leading to increased perceptions of excitement. As such, consumers tend to perceive asymmetrical logos as more congruent with brands that have an exciting personality. This can boost consumers’ evaluations and the market’s financial valuations of such brands, a phenomenon referred to as the “visual asymmetry effect.” The studies also show that this interplay between brand personality and logo design occurs only for the personality of excitement and the visual property of asymmetry. These findings add to theories of visual design and branding and offer actionable insights to marketing practitioners.
AakerJennifer L. (1997), “Dimensions of Brand Personality,” Journal of Marketing Research, 34 (3), 347–56.
2.
AakerJennifer L.Benet-MartinezVeronicaGaroleraJordi (2001), “Consumption Symbols as Carriers of Culture: A Study of Japanese and Spanish Brand Personality Constructs,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81 (3), 482–508.
3.
AakerJennifer L.FournierSusanAdam BraselS. (2004), “When Good Brands Do Bad,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (1), 1–16.
4.
BatraRajeevHomerPamela M. (2004), “The Situational Impact of Brand Image Beliefs,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14 (3), 318–30.
5.
BerlyneDaniel E (1960), Conflict, Arousal, and Curiosity. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6.
BerlyneDaniel E (1971), Aesthetics and Psychobiology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
7.
BergamiMassimoBagozziRichard P. (2000), “Self-Categorization, Affective Commitment and Group Self-Esteem as Distinct Aspects of Social Identity in the Organization,” British Journal of Social Psychology, 39 (4), 555–77.
8.
BlochPeter H. (1995), “Seeking the Ideal Form: Product Design and Consumer Response,” Journal of Marketing, 59 (3), 16–29.
9.
BlochPeter H.BrunelFrederic F.ArnoldTodd J. (2003) “Individual Differences in the Centrality of Visual Product Aesthetics: Concept and Measurement,” Journal of Consumer Research, 29 (4), 551–65.
10.
BrakusJ. JoskoSchmittBernd H.ZarantonelloLia (2009), “Brand Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Does It Affect Loyalty?” Journal of Marketing, 73 (3), 52–68.
11.
BraselS. AdamHagtvedtHenrik (2016), “Living Brands: Consumer Responses to Animated Brand Logos,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 44 (5), 639–53.
12.
CheemaAmarPatrickVanessa M. (2008), “Anytime Versus Only: Mind-Sets Moderate the Effect of Expansive Versus Restrictive Frames on Promotion Evaluation?” Journal of Marketing Research, 45 (4), 462–72.
13.
CianLucaKrishnaAradhnaElderRyan S. (2014), “This Logo Moves Me: Dynamic Imagery from Static Images,” Journal of Marketing Research, 51 (2), 184–97.
14.
CianLucaKrishnaAradhnaElderRyan S. (2015), “A Sign of Things to Come: Behavioral Change Through Dynamic Iconography,” Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (4), 1426–46.
15.
CryderCynthiaBottiSimonaSimonyanYvetta (2017), “The Charity Beauty Premium: Satisfying Donors’ Want Versus Should Desires,” Journal of Marketing Research, 54 (4), 605–18.
16.
DattaHannesAilawadiKusum L.HeerdeHarald J. van (2017), “How Well Does Consumer-Based Brand Equity Align with Sales-Based Brand Equity and Marketing Mix Response?” Journal of Marketing, 81 (3), 1–20.
17.
EisenmanRussell (1968), “Semantic Differential Ratings of Polygons Varying in Complexity-Simplicity and Symmetry-Asymmetry,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26 (3), 1243–48.
18.
EisenmanRussellRappaportJoan (1967), “Complexity Preference and Semantic Differential Ratings of Complexity-Simplicity and Symmetry-Asymmetry,” Psychonomic Science, 7 (4), 147–48.
19.
ElderRyan S.AydinogluNilufer Z.BargerVictorCaldaraCindyChunHae EunLeeChan Jean. (2010), “A Sense of Things to Come,” in Sensory Marketing: Research on Sensuality of Products, KrishnaAradhna, ed. New York: Routledge, 361–76.
20.
FornellClaesLarckerDavid F. (1981), “Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error: Algebra and Statistics,” Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (3), 382–88.
21.
GornGerald J.ChattopadhyayAmitavaSenguptaJaideepTripathiShashank (2004), “Waiting for the Web: How Screen Color Affects Time Perceptions,” Journal of Marketing Research, 41 (2), 215–25.
HagtvedtHenrik (2011), “The Impact of Incomplete Typeface Logos on Perceptions of the Firm,” Journal of Marketing, 75 (4), 86–93.
24.
HagtvedtHenrikPatrickVanessa M. (2008), “Art Infusion: The Influence of Visual Art on the Perception and Evaluation of Consumer Products,” Journal of Marketing Research, 45 (3), 379–89.
25.
HayesAndrew F. (2017), Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press.
26.
HayesAndrew F.GlynnCarroll J.HugeMichael E. (2012), “Cautions Regarding the Interpretation of Regression Coefficients and Hypothesis Tests in Linear Models with Interactions,” Communication Methods and Measures, 6 (1), 1–11.
27.
HendersonPamela W.CoteJoseph A. (1998), “Guidelines for Selecting or Modifying Logos,” Journal of Marketing, 62 (2), 14–30.
28.
HendersonPamela W.CoteJoseph A.LeongSiew MengSchmittBernd (2003), “Building Strong Brands in Asia: Selecting the Visual Components of Image to Maximize Brand Strength,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 20 (4), 297–313.
29.
HendersonPamela W.GieseJoan L.CoteJoseph A. (2004), “Impression Management Using Typeface Design,” Journal of Marketing, 68 (4), 60–72.
IrwinJulie R.McClellandGary H. (2001), “Misleading Heuristics and Moderated Multiple Regression Models,” Journal of Marketing Research, 38 (1), 100–109.
32.
JiangYuweiGornGerald J.GalliMariaChattopadhyayAmitava (2016) “Does Your Company Have the Right Logo? How and Why Circular-and Angular-Logo Shapes Influence Brand Attribute Judgments,” Journal of Consumer Research, 42 (5), 709–26.
33.
JoharGita VenkataramaniSenguptaJaideepAakerJennifer L. (2005), “Two Roads to Updating Brand Personality Impressions: Trait Versus Evaluative Inferencing,” Journal of Marketing Research, 42 (November), 458–69.
34.
JohanssonJohny K.DimofteClaudiu V.MazvancherylSanal (2012), “The Performance of Global Brands in the 2008 Financial Crisis: A Test of Two Brand Value Measures,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29 (3), 235–45.
35.
KellerKevin Lane (1993), “Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity,” Journal of Marketing, 57 (1), 1–22.
36.
KrishnaAradhna (2012), “An Integrative Review of Sensory Marketing: Engaging the Senses to Affect Perception, Judgment and Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22 (3), 332–51.
37.
KrishnaAradhna (2013), Customer Sense: How the 5 Senses Influence Buying Behavior. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
38.
KrishnaAradhnaElderRyan S.CaldaraCindy (2010), “Feminine to Smell but Masculine to Touch? Multisensory Congruence and its Effect on the Aesthetic Experience,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20 (4), 410–18.
39.
KrupinskiElizabethLocherPaul J. (1988), “Skin Conductance and Aesthetic Evaluative Responses to Nonrepresentational Works of Art Varying in Symmetry,” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 26 (4), 355–58.
LandwehrJan R.McGillAnn L.HerrmannAndreas (2011), “It’s Got the Look: The Effect of Friendly and Aggressive ‘Facial’ Expressions on Product Liking and Sales,” Journal of Marketing, 75 (3), 132–46.
42.
LandwehrJan R.WentzelDanielHerrmannAndreas (2013), “Product Design for the Long Run: Consumer Responses to Typical and Atypical Designs at Different Stages of Exposure,” Journal of Marketing, 77 (5), 92–107.
43.
LocherPaul J.NodineCalvin F. (1987), “Symmetry Catches the Eye,” in Eye Movements: From Physiology to Cognition, O’ReganJ.K.Levy-SchoenA., eds. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 353–61.
44.
LocherPaul J.NodineCalvin F. (1989), “The Perceptual Value of Symmetry,” Computers & Mathematics with Applications, 17 (4–6), 475–84.
45.
LovettMitchell J.PeresRenanaShacharRon (2013), “On Brands and Word of Mouth,” Journal of Marketing Research, 50 (4), 427–44.
46.
MaddenThomas J.FehleFrankFournierSusan (2006), “Brands Matter: An Empirical Demonstration of the Creation of Shareholder Value Through Branding,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34 (2), 224–35.
47.
MehrabianAlbertRussellJames A. (1974), An Approach to Environmental Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
48.
MizikNatalie (2014), “Assessing the Total Financial Performance Impact of Brand Equity with Limited Time-Series Data,” Journal of Marketing Research, 51 (6), 691–706.
49.
MizikNatalieJacobsonRobert (2008), “The Financial Value Impact of Perceptual Brand Attributes,” Journal of Marketing Research, 45 (1), 15–32.
OppenheimerDaniel M.MeyvisTomDavidenkoNicolas (2009), “Instructional Manipulation Checks: Detecting Satisficing to Increase Statistical Power,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45 (4), 867–72.
52.
OrthUlrich R.MalkewitzKeven (2008), “Holistic Package Design and Consumer Brand Impressions,” Journal of Marketing, 72 (3), 64–81.
53.
PietersRikWedelMichelBatraRajeev (2010), “The Stopping Power of Advertising: Measures and Effects of Visual Complexity,” Journal of Marketing, 74 (5), 48–60.
54.
PodsakoffPhilip M.MacKenzieScott B.LeeJeong-YeonPodsakoffNathan P. (2003), “Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies,” Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 (5), 879–903.
55.
ReberRolfSchwarzNorbertWinkielmanPiotr (2004), “Processing Fluency and Aesthetic Pleasure: Is Beauty in the Perceiver’s Processing Experience?” Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8 (4), 364–82.
56.
RussellJames A. (2003), “Core Affect and the Psychological Construction of Emotion,” Psychological Review, 110 (1), 145–72.
57.
RussellJames A.WeissAnnaMendelsohnGerald A. (1989), “Affect Grid: A Single-Item Scale of Pleasure and Arousal,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 587 (3), 493–502.
58.
RustRoland T.AmblerTimCarpenterGregory S.KumarV.SrivastavaRajendra K. (2004), “Measuring Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Direction,” Journal of Marketing, 68 (4), 76–89.
59.
SchechterAlvin H. (1993), “Measuring the Value of Corporate and Brand Logos,” Design Management Journal, 4 (1), 33–39.
60.
SchmittBernd H.SimonsonAlexMarcusJoshua (1995), “Managing Corporate Image and Identity,” Long Range Planning, 28 (5), 82–92.
61.
ShenXuWanXiaoangMuBingbingSpenceCharles (2015), “Searching for Triangles: An Extension to Food & Packaging,” Food Quality and Preference44 (September), 26–35.
62.
SonnierGarrettAinslieAndrew (2011), “Estimating the Value of Brand-Image Associations: The Role of General and Specific Brand Image,” Journal of Marketing Research, 48 (3), 518–31.
63.
SundarAparnaNoseworthyTheodore J. (2014), “Place the Logo High or Low? Using Conceptual Metaphors of Power in Packaging Design,” Journal of Marketing, 78 (5), 138–51.
64.
SundarAparnaNoseworthyTheodore J. (2016), “Too Exciting to Fail, Too Sincere to Succeed: The Effects of Brand Personality on Sensory Disconfirmation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 43 (1), 44–67.
65.
SwaminathanVanithaStilleyKaren M.AhluwaliaRohini (2009), “When Brand Personality Matters: The Moderating Role of Attachment Styles,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (6), 985–1002.
66.
Van der LansRalfCoteJoseph A.ColeCatherine A.LeongSiew MengSmidtsAleHendersonPamela W.. (2009), “Cross-National Logo Evaluation Analysis: An Individual-Level Approach,” Marketing Science, 28 (5), 968–85.
67.
Van TilburgM.LievenTheoHerrmannAndreasTownsendClaudia (2015), “Beyond Pink It and Shrink It: Perceived Product Gender, Aesthetics, and Product Evaluation,” Psychology & Marketing, 32 (4), 422–37.
ZhaoXinshuLynchJohn G.JrChenQimei (2010), “Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths About Mediation Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2), 197–206.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
