Sleep time and depression symptoms are important factors affecting cognitive development in adolescents. Based on the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) database, this study used a two-wave cross-lagged model to examine the bidirectional relationship between sleep time, depression symptoms, and cognitive development. Descriptive statistics showed that Chinese adolescents’ cognitive development increased significantly from 7th to 8th grade in junior high school, but unfortunately, their depression level and average sleep time per night demonstrated a slightly deteriorating trend. Correlation analysis showed that there was a relatively stable negative correlation between cognitive development, sleep time, and depression symptoms. Moreover, the cross-lagged model revealed that there was a bidirectional relationship between cognitive development and sleep time, a bidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and sleep time, and a unidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and cognitive development. Male adolescents in the subgroup were consistent with the total sample. Among female adolescents, only cognitive development and sleep time have a bidirectional relationship, while depression symptoms and cognitive development, and depression symptoms and sleep time have a unidirectional relationship. Therefore, it is of significance to take targeted action to promote cognitive development and healthy growth in adolescents worldwide.
AlfanoC. A.ZakemA. H.CostaN. M.TaylorL. K.WeemsC. F. (2009). Sleep problems and their relation to cognitive factors, anxiety, and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 26(6), 503–512. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20443
2.
AndersonD.BurnhamK. (2004). Model selection and multi-model inference. 2nd ed.Springer-Verlag, 63(2020), 10.
AstillR. G.Van der HeijdenK. B.Van IJzendoornM. H.Van SomerenE. J. (2012). Sleep, cognition, and behavioral problems in school-age children: A century of research meta-analyzed. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1109–1138. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028204
5.
BartlettD.JacksonM. L. (2016). The bidirectional nature of sleep problems and psychopathology. Medicine Today, 17(3), 23–28.
6.
BennettD. S.AmbrosiniP. J.KudesD.MetzC.RabinovichH. (2005). Gender differences in adolescent depression: Do symptoms differ for boys and girls?Journal of Affective Disorders, 89(1-3), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2005.05.020
ButtersM. A.WhyteE. M.NebesR. D.BegleyA. E.DewM. A.MulsantB. H.ZmudaM. D.BhallaR.MeltzerC. C.PollockB. G.ReynoldsC. F.IIIBeckerJ. T. (2004). The nature and determinants of neuropsychological functioning in late-LifeDepression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(6), 587–595. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.587
9.
CarskadonM. A.AceboC.JenniO. G. (2004). Regulation of adolescent sleep: Implications for behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1308.032
10.
ChangP. P.FordD. E.MeadL. A.Cooper-PatrickL.KlagM. J. (1997). Insomnia in young men and subsequent depression: The Johns Hopkins precursors study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146(2), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009241
11.
ChaplinT. M.HongK.BergquistK.SinhaR. (2008). Gender differences in response to emotional stress: An assessment across subjective, behavioral, and physiological domains and relations to alcohol craving. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(7), 1242–1250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00679.x
12.
ChengW.RollsE.GongW.DuJ.ZhangJ.ZhangX.-Y.LiF.FengJ. (2021). Sleep duration, brain structure, and psychiatric and cognitive problems in children. Molecular Psychiatry, 26(8), 3992–4003. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0663-2
13.
Christov-MooreL.SimpsonE. A.CoudéG.GrigaityteK.IacoboniM.FerrariP. F. (2014). Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 46(Pt 4), 604–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001
14.
ConradiH.OrmelJ.De JongeP. (2011). Presence of individual (residual) symptoms during depressive episodes and periods of remission: A 3-year prospective study. Psychological Medicine, 41(6), 1165–1174. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710001911
15.
CroneE. A.DahlR. E. (2012). Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 13(9), 636–650. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3313
16.
CurcioG.FerraraM.De GennaroL. (2006). Sleep loss, learning capacity and academic performance. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 10(5), 323–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2005.11.001
17.
DahlR. E.AllenN. B.WilbrechtL.SuleimanA. B. (2018). Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective. Nature, 554(7693), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25770
18.
Dewald-KaufmannJ. F.OortF. J.MeijerA. M. (2013). The effects of sleep extension on sleep and cognitive performance in adolescents with chronic sleep reduction: An experimental study. Sleep Medicine, 14(6), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2013.01.012
19.
DiekelmannS.BornJ. (2010). The memory function of sleep. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 11(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2762
20.
El‐SheikhM.GillisB. T.SainiE. K.ErathS. A.BuckhaltJ. A. (2022). Sleep and disparities in child and adolescent development. Child Development Perspectives, 16(4), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12465
21.
FaubelR.López‐GarcÍaE.Guallar‐castillÓnP.GracianiA.BanegasJ. R.RodrÍguez‐artalejoF. (2009). Usual sleep duration and cognitive function in older adults in Spain. Journal of Sleep Research, 18(4), 427–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2009.00759.x
22.
FiorenzatoE.ZabberoniS.CostaA.ConaG. (2021). Cognitive and mental health changes and their vulnerability factors related to COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. PLoS One, 16(1), Article e0246204. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246204
23.
FreemanD.SheavesB.GoodwinG. M.YuL.-M.NicklessA.HarrisonP. J.EmsleyR.LuikA. I.FosterR. G.WadekarV.HindsC.GumleyA.JonesR.LightmanS.JonesS.BentallR.KindermanP.RowseG.BrughaT.EspieC. A. (2017). The effects of improving sleep on mental health (OASIS): A randomised controlled trial with mediation analysis. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 4(10), 749–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30328-0
24.
GaoW.LuoY.CaoX.LiuX. (2022). Gender differences in the relationship between self-esteem and depression among college students: A cross-lagged study from China. Journal of Research in Personality, 97(1), 104202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104202
25.
GaoW.PingS.LiuX. (2020). Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263(2), 292–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.121
GoulabchandR.CastilleE.NavucetS.Etchecopar-EtchartD.MatosA.MariaA.GutierrezL. A.Le QuellecA.de ChampfleurN. M.GabelleA.GuilpainP. (2022). The interplay between cognition, depression, anxiety, and sleep in primary Sjogren’s syndrome patients. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 13176–13212. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-17354-1
28.
GrantM. M.ThaseM. E.SweeneyJ. A. (2001). Cognitive disturbance in outpatient depressed younger adults: Evidence of modest impairment. Biological Psychiatry, 50(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01072-6
29.
GregoryA. M.O'ConnorT. G. (2002). Sleep problems in childhood: A longitudinal study of developmental change and association with behavioral problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(8), 964–971. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200208000-00015
30.
HamiltonJ. L.StangeJ. P.AbramsonL. Y.AlloyL. B. (2015). Stress and the development of cognitive vulnerabilities to depression explain sex differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 3(5), 702–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614545479
31.
HasselbalchB.KnorrU.HasselbalchS.GadeA.KessingL. (2013). The cumulative load of depressive illness is associated with cognitive function in the remitted state of unipolar depressive disorder. European Psychiatry: The Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists, 28(6), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2012.03.004
32.
HirshkowitzM.WhitonK.AlbertS. M.AlessiC.BruniO.DonCarlosL.HazenN.HermanJ.KatzE. S.Kheirandish-GozalL.NeubauerD. N.O’DonnellA. E.OhayonM.PeeverJ.RawdingR.SachdevaR. C.SettersB.VitielloM. V.WareJ. C.Adams HillardP. J. (2015). National sleep foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: Methodology and results summary. Sleep Health, 1(1), 40–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010
33.
HollonS. D.SheltonR. C.WisniewskiS.WardenD.BiggsM. M.FriedmanE. S.HusainM.KupferD. J.NierenbergA. A.PetersenT. J.Shores-WilsonK.RushA. J. (2006). Presenting characteristics of depressed outpatients as a function of recurrence: Preliminary findings from the STAR*D clinical trial. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(1), 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.008
34.
HsinA.XieY. (2014). Explaining Asian Americans’ academic advantage over whites. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(23), 8416–8421. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1406402111
JacksonM. L.SztendurE. M.DiamondN. T.BylesJ. E.BruckD. (2014). Sleep difficulties and the development of depression and anxiety: A longitudinal study of young Australian women. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 17(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0417-8
38.
JonesK.HarrisonY. (2001). Frontal lobe function, sleep loss and fragmented sleep. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 5(6), 463–475. https://doi.org/10.1053/smrv.2001.0203
39.
JoseP. E.BrownI. (2008). When does the gender difference in rumination begin? Gender and age differences in the use of rumination by adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37(2), 180–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9166-y
40.
KondoR.MiyanoI.LeeS.ShimadaH.KitaokaH. (2021). Association between self‐reported night sleep duration and cognitive function among older adults with intact global cognition. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 36(5), 766–774. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.5476
41.
KopaszM.LoesslB.ValeriusG.KoenigE.MatthaeasN.HornyakM.KloepferC.NissenC.RiemannD.VoderholzerU. (2010). No persisting effect of partial sleep curtailment on cognitive performance and declarative memory recall in adolescents. Journal of Sleep Research, 19(1 Pt 1), 71–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2009.00742.x
42.
Kramer-GinsbergE.GreenwaldB. S.KrishnanK. R. R.ChristiansenB.HuJ.AshtariM.PatelM.PollackS. (1999). Neuropsychological functioning and MRI signal hyperintensities in geriatric depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(3), 438–444. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.3.438
43.
KremenW. S.BeckA.ElmanJ. A.GustavsonD. E.ReynoldsC. A.TuX. M.Sanderson-CiminoM. E.PanizzonM. S.VuoksimaaE.ToomeyR.Fennema-NotestineC.HaglerD. J.JrFangB.DaleA. M.LyonsM. J.FranzC. E. (2019). Influence of young adult cognitive ability and additional education on later-life cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(6), 2021–2026. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811537116
44.
LarsenB.LunaB. (2018). Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 94(1), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.005
45.
LeeR. S. C.HermensD. F.PorterM. A.Redoblado-HodgeM. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(2), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023
46.
LiuX.CaoX.GaoW. (2022). Does low self-esteem predict anxiety among Chinese college students?Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 15(6), 1481–1487. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S361807
47.
LoJ. C.OngJ. L.LeongR. L. F.GooleyJ. J.CheeM. W. L. (2016). Cognitive performance, sleepiness, and mood in partially sleep deprived adolescents: The need for sleep study. Sleep, 39(3), 687–698. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.5552
48.
LovatoN.GradisarM. (2014). A meta-analysis and model of the relationship between sleep and depression in adolescents: Recommendations for future research and clinical practice. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 18(6), 521–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.03.006
49.
LynnR.IrwingP. (2002). Sex differences in general knowledge, semantic memory and reasoning ability. British Journal of Psychology, 93(Pt 4), 545–556. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712602761381394
50.
McGlincheyE. L.Reyes‐PortilloJ. A.TurnerJ. B.MufsonL. (2017). Innovations in Practice: The relationship between sleep disturbances, depression, and interpersonal functioning in treatment for adolescent depression. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 22(2), 96–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12176
51.
OrzechK. M.SalafskyD. B.HamiltonL. A. (2011). The state of sleep among college students at a large public university. Journal of American College Health: J of ACH, 59(7), 612–619. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.520051
52.
PascoeM. C.HetrickS. E.ParkerA. G. (2020). The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1596823
53.
PattenC. A.ChoiW. S.GillinJ. C.PierceJ. P. (2000). Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking predict development and persistence of sleep problems in US adolescents. Pediatrics, 106(2), Article e23–e23. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.106.2.e23
54.
PekrunR.GoetzT.TitzW.PerryR. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students' self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3702_4
55.
Perkinson-GloorN.LemolaS.GrobA. (2013). Sleep duration, positive attitude toward life, and academic achievement: The role of daytime tiredness, behavioral persistence, and school start times. Journal of Adolescence, 36(2), 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.008
56.
PowerK. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the care burden of women and families. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 16(1), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2020.1776561
57.
RandazzoA. C.MuehlbachM. J.SchweitzerP. K.WalshJ. K. (1998). Cognitive function following acute sleep restriction in children ages 10–14. Sleep, 21(8), 861–868.
58.
SadehA.GruberR.RavivA. (2003). The effects of sleep restriction and extension on school‐age children: What a difference an hour makes. Child Development, 74(2), 444–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.7402008
59.
SchmutteT.HarrisS.LevinR.ZweigR.KatzM.LiptonR. (2007). The relation between cognitive functioning and self-reported sleep complaints in nondemented older adults: Results from the Bronx aging study. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 5(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15402010bsm0501_3
60.
SeasholtzM. B.KowalskiB. (1993). The parsimony principle applied to multivariate calibration. Analytica Chimica Acta, 277(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2670(93)80430-s
61.
ShelineY. I.BarchD. M.GarciaK.GersingK.PieperC.Welsh-BohmerK.SteffensD. C.DoraiswamyP. M. (2006). Cognitive function in late life depression: Relationships to depression severity, cerebrovascular risk factors and processing speed. Biological Psychiatry, 60(1), 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.09.019
62.
TarokhL.SaletinJ. M.CarskadonM. A. (2016). Sleep in adolescence: Physiology, cognition and mental health. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 70(1), 182–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.008
63.
TungY.-J.LoK. K. H.HoR. C. M.TamW. S. W. (2018). Prevalence of depression among nursing students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nurse Education Today, 63(1), 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2018.01.009
64.
VarmaP.JungeM.MeaklimH.JacksonM. L. (2021). Younger people are more vulnerable to stress, anxiety and depression during COVID-19 pandemic: A global cross-sectional survey. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 109(1), 110236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110236
65.
WagnerS.DoeringB.HelmreichI.LiebK.TadićA. (2012). A meta‐analysis of executive dysfunctions in unipolar major depressive disorder without psychotic symptoms and their changes during antidepressant treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 125(4), 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01762.x
66.
WangM.-T.DegolJ. L. (2017). Gender gap in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): Current knowledge, implications for practice, policy, and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 29(1), 119–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9355-x
ZhouZ.ShekD. T. L.ZhuX.DouD. (2020). Positive youth development and adolescent depression: A longitudinal study based on mainland Chinese high school students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12), 4457. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124457
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
