The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of an integrative model for community participation in tourism development. Termed as motivation—opportunity—ability (MOA), the model integrated two streams of research, “means” and “ends” oriented studies, with the intent of providing a holistic view of community participation research. To test the hypothesized relationships, data were collected from a stratified random sample of households in Charleston, South Carolina. The data provided some support for the model; the findings suggest that the extent to which community members participate in the tourism development process depends on motivation, opportunity, and ability to participate. Practical and theoretical implications have been discussed within the general framework of community participation.
Aas, C., A. Ladkin, and J. Fletcher ( 2005). "Stakeholder Collaboration and Heritage Management." Annals of Tourism Research, 32 (1): 28-48.
2.
Addison, L. ( 1996). "An Approach to Community-based Tourism Planning in the Baffin Region, Canada’s Far North - A Retrospective." In Practicing Responsible Tourism, edited by L. C. Harrison and W. Husbands.New York: John Wiley, pp. 296-329.
3.
Ap, J. ( 1990). "Residents’ Perceptions Research on the Social Impacts of Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research, 17 (4): 610-16.
4.
Arnstein, S. ( 1969). "A Ladder of Citizen Participation." Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35 (4): 216-24.
5.
Bahaire, T., and M. Elliott-White (1999). "Community Participation in Tourism Planning and Development in the Historic City of York, England ." Current Issues in Tourism, 2 (3): 243-76.
6.
Batra, R., and M.L. Ray ( 1986). "Situational Effects of Advertising Repetition: The Moderating Influence of Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity to Respond." Journal of Consumer Research, 12 (March): 432-49.
7.
Beirne, P. ( 1993). "The Rise of Positivist Criminology: Adolphe Quetelet’s ‘Social Mechanics of Crime.’" In Inventing Criminology: Essays on the Rise of "Homo criminalis," edited by R. A. Farrell.New York: SUNY Press, pp. 65-110.
8.
Bentler, P.M. ( 1990). "Comparative Fit Indexes in Structural Models." Psychological Bulletin, 107: 238-46.
9.
Bettman, J.R. ( 1979). An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
10.
Bollen, K.A. ( 1989). Structural Equations with Latent Variables. New York: John Wiley.
11.
Buchy, M., and S. Hoverman ( 2000). "Understanding Public Participation in Forest Planning: A Review." Forest Policy and Economics, 1: 15-25.
12.
Byrd, E.T. ( 2003). An Analysis of Variables That Influence Stake-holder Participation and Support for Sustainable Tourism Development in Rural North Carolina. Doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University .
13.
Byrne, B.M. ( 2001). Structural Equation Modeling with Amos: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
14.
Choguill, M.B.G. ( 1996). "A Ladder of Community Participation for Underdeveloped Countries." Habitat International, 20 (3): 431-44.
15.
Choi, H.S., and E. Sirakaya ( 2005). "Measuring Residents’ Attitude toward Sustainable Tourism: Development of Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale." Journal of Travel Research, 43, 380-394.
16.
Churchill, G.A. ( 1979). "A Paradigm for Developing Better Measures of Marketing Constructs." Journal of Marketing Research, XVI (February): 64-73.
17.
Cole, S. ( 2006). "Information and Empowerment: The Keys to Achieving Sustainable Tourism." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14 (6): 629-44.
18.
Davidson, T., and L. Gentry ( 2001). The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Home Security. Indianapolis: Alpha Books.
19.
Dearden, P. ( 1981). "Public Participation and Scenic Quality Analysis." Landscape Planning, 8: 3-19.
20.
Dillman, D.A. ( 1978). Mail and Telephone Surveys: The Total Design Method. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
21.
Dillman, D.A. ( 2007). Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method , 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
22.
Drake, S.P. ( 1991). "Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects." In Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment, edited by E. Whelan.Washington, DC: Island Press, pp. 132-63.
23.
Garrod, B. ( 2003). "Local Participation in the Planning and Management of Ecotourism: A Revised Model Approach." Journal of Ecotourism , 2 (1): 33-53.
24.
Goodson, L. ( 2003). Tourism Impacts, Community Participation and Gender: An Exploratory Study of Residents’ Perceptions in the City of Bath. PhD thesis, Brunel University, Uxbridge, London.
25.
Gursoy, D., C. Jurowski, and M. Uysal ( 2002). "Resident Attitudes: A Structural Modeling Approach." Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (1): 79-105.
26.
Jamal, T.B., and D. Getz ( 1995). "Collaboration Theory and Community Tourism Planning ." Annals of Tourism Research, 22 (1): 186-204.
27.
Jamal, T.B., and D. Getz ( 1999). "Community Roundtable for Tourism Related Conflicts: The Dialectics of Consensus and Progress Structures." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7: 290-313.
28.
Jurowski, C., M. Uysal, and D.R. Williams ( 1997). "A Theoretical Analysis of Host Community Resident Reactions to Tourism." Journal of Travel Research, 36 (2): 3-11.
29.
Kayat, K. ( 2002). "Exploring Factors Influencing Individual Participation in Community-based Tourism: The Case of Kampung Relau Homestay Program, Malaysia ." Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 7 (2): 19-27.
30.
Kenry, C. ( 2003). Uncle Max. New York: Kensington Books.
31.
Kline, R.B. ( 2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 2nd edition. New York: Guilford.
32.
Li, W.J. ( 2006). "Community Decisionmaking: Participation in Development ." Annals of Tourism Research, 33 (1): 132-43.
33.
Lindberg, K., and R.L. Johnson ( 1997). "Modeling Resident Attitudes toward Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (2): 402-24.
34.
MacInnis, D.J., and B.J. Jaworski ( 1989). "Information Processing from Advertisements: Toward an Integrative Framework." Journal of Marketing, 53 (October): 1-23.
35.
MacInnis, D.J., C. Moorman, and B.J. Jaworski ( 1991). "Enhancing and Measuring Consumers’ Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process Brand Information from Ads." Journal of Marketing, 55 (October): 32-53.
36.
Marsh, H., and D. Grayson ( 1995). "Latent Variable Models of Multitrait-Multimethod Data ." In Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues and Applications , edited by R. Hoyle.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 177-98.
37.
Massey, F.J. ( 1951). "The Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for Goodness of Fit." Journal of the American Statistical Association, 46: 68-78.
38.
Mathieson, A., and G. Wall ( 1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social Impacts. London: Longman.
39.
McGrew, J.M. ( 2005). Think Safe: Practical Measures to Increase Security at Home, at Work, and throughout Life. Hilton Head Island , SC: Cameo.
40.
McIntyre, G. ( 1993). Sustainable Tourism Development: Guide for Local Planners . Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organizations .
41.
Milne, S., and G. Ewing ( 2004). "Community Participation in Caribbean Tourism." In Tourism in the Caribbean: Trends, Development, Prospects, edited by D. T. Duval.London: Rout-ledge, pp. 205-17.
42.
Muthén, B., and D. Kaplan ( 1992). "A Comparison of Some Methodologies for the Factor Analysis of Non-normal Likert Variables: A Note on the Size of the Model." British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 45: 19-30.
43.
Nyaupane, G.P., D.B. Morais, and L. Dowler ( 2006). "The Role of Community Involvement and Number/Type of Visitors on Tourism Impacts: A Controlled Comparison of Annapurna, Nepal and Northwest Yunnan, China." Tourism Management, 27: 1373-85.
44.
Okazaki, E. ( 2008). "A Community-based Tourism Model: Its Conception and Use." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16 (5): 511-29.
45.
Peters, H. ( 1999). "Making Tourism Work for Heritage Preservation: Lijiang, a case study." In UNESCO and the Nature Conservancy, Yunnan . International Conference on Anthropology, Chinese Society and Tourism, Kunming.
46.
Petty, R.E., R.H. Unnava, and A.J. Strathman ( 1991). "Theories of Attitude Change." In Handbook of Consumer Behavior, edited by H. H. Kassarijian and T. S. Robertson.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 241-79.
47.
Prentice, R. ( 1993). "Community-driven Tourism Planning and Residents’ Preference." Tourism Management, 14: 218-27.
48.
Pretty, J. ( 1995). "The Many Interpretations of Participation." In Focus, 16: 4-5.
Rothschild, M.L. ( 1999). "Carrots, Sticks, and Promises: A Conceptual Framework for the Management of Public Health and Social Issue Behaviors." Journal of Marketing, 63 (October): 24-37.
52.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., H. Moosbrugger, and H. Müller ( 2003). "Evaluating the Fit of Structural Equation Models: Tests of Significance and Descriptive Goodness-of-Fit Measures."Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8 (2): 23-74.
53.
Selin, S. ( 1999). "Developing a Typology of Sustainable Tourism Partnerships ." Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7 (3&4): 260-73.
Sirakaya, E., T. Jamal, and H.S. Choi ( 2001). "Developing Indicators for Destination Sustainability ." In The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, edited by D. B. Weaver.New York: CABI, pp. 411-32.
56.
Sirakaya-Turk, E. ( 2007). "Concurrent Validity of the Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale." Annals of Tourism Research, 34 (4): 1081-84.
57.
Sirakaya-Turk, E., Y. Ekinci, and A.G. Kaya ( 2008). "An Examination of the Validity of SUS-TAS in Cross-Cultures."Journal of Travel Research, 46: 414-21.
58.
Smith, W.J. ( 2002). "The Clearinghouse Approach to Enhancing Informed Public Participation in Watershed Management Utilizing GIS and Internet Technology ." Water International, 27 (4): 558-67.
59.
Speller, G., and N. Ravenscroft ( 2005). "Facilitating and Evaluating Public Participation in Urban Parks Management." Local Environment, 10 (1): 41-56.
60.
Steiger, J.H., and J.C. Lind ( 1980). "Statistically Based Tests for the Number of Factors ." Paper presented at the Annual Spring Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Iowa City, LA.
61.
Taylor, G. ( 1995). "The Community Approach: Does It Really Work?" Tourism Management, 16 (7): 487-89.
62.
Teye, V., E. Sirakaya, and S. Sonmez ( 2002). "Resident Attitudes toward Tourism Development." Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (3): 668-88.
63.
Timothy, D.J. ( 1999). "Participatory Planning: A View of Tourism in Indonesia ." Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (2): 371-91.
64.
Timothy, D.J. ( 2002). "Tourism and Community Development Issues." In Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues, edited by R. Sharpley and D. Telfer.Clevedon, Avon, UK: Channel View, pp. 149-64.
65.
Timothy, D.J., and C. Tosun ( 2003). "Appropriate Planning for Tourism in Destination Communities: Participation, Incremental Growth and Collaboration." In Tourism in Destination Communities, edited by S. Singh, D. J. Timothy, and R. K. Dowling.Cambridge, MA: CABI, pp. 181-204.
66.
Tosun, C. ( 1999). "Towards a Typology of Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process." Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10 (2): 113-34.
67.
Tosun, C. ( 2000). "Limits to Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process in Developing Countries." Tourism Management, 21: 613-33.
68.
Tosun, C. ( 2001). "Challenges of Sustainable Tourism Development in the Developing World: The Case of Turkey." Tourism Management , 22: 289-303.
69.
Tosun, C. ( 2006). "Expected Nature of Community Participation in Tourism Development." Tourism Management, 27 (3): 493-504.
70.
Tosun, C., and D.J. Timothy ( 2003). "Arguments for Community Participation in the Tourism Development Process." Journal of Tourism Studies, 14 (2): 2-15.
71.
Wang, Y., and G. Wall ( 2006). "Administrative Arrangements and Displacement Compensation in Top-Down Tourism Planning- A Case from Hainan Province, China." Tourism Management, 28: 70-82.
72.
Wiggins, J. ( 2004). "Motivation, Ability and Opportunity to Participate: A reconceptualization of the RAND Model of Audience Development." International Journal of Arts Management, 7 (1): 22-33.
73.
Ying, T., and Y. Zhou ( 2007). "Community, Governments and External Capitals in China’s Rural Cultural Tourism: A Comparative Study of Two Adjacent Villages." Tourism Management, 28: 96-107.
74.
Yoon, Y., J.S. Chen, and D. Gürsoy ( 1999). "An Investigation of the Relationship between Tourism Impacts and Host Communities’ Characteristics." Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10 (1): 29-44.
