The effect of violence on individual behavior has been well documented. However, the empirical literature surrounding the relationship between coercive prison environments and inmate well-being is limited. This is important not only for correctional administrators but also for reentry planning. Using a sample of 1,616 recently released male inmates, this study examines the psychological effect of victimization and of perceptions of threat and coercion arising from the prison environment. The study also examines whether social support affects cognitions and psychological symptoms and whether it moderates the effect of victimization and coercion. The findings reveal that coercion and social support are related to posttraumatic cognitions and trauma symptoms; however, social support does not provide a moderating effect.
Adams, K. ( 1983). Former mental patients in a prison and parole system: A study of socially disruptive behavior. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 10, 358-384.
2.
Adams, K. ( 1992). Adjusting to prison life. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (pp. 276-359). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
3.
Agnew, R. ( 1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency . Criminology, 30, 47-87.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
6.
Andrews, D.A., Bonta, J., & Wormith, S.J. ( 2006). The recent past and near future of risk and/or need assessment . Crime & Delinquency, 52, 7-27.
7.
Arditti, J.A., & Few, A.L. ( 2006). Mothers’ reentry into family life following incarceration . Criminal Justice Policy Review, 17, 103-123.
8.
Bagley, C., Wood, M., & Young, L. ( 1994). Victim to abuser: Mental health and behavioral sequels of child sexual abuse in a community survey of young adult males. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 683-697.
9.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. ( 1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
10.
Baron, S.W. ( 2009). Differential coercion, street youth, and violent crime . Criminology, 47, 239-268.
11.
Barrera, M., Jr., Sandler, I.N., & Ramsey, T.B. ( 1981). Preliminary studies of a scale of social support: Studies on college students. American Journal of Community Psychology , 9, 435-447.
12.
Beck, A.J., & Harrison, P.M. (2007). Sexual victimization in state and federal prisons reported by inmates, 2007 (NCJ 219414). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics .
13.
Beck, J.G., Coffey, S.F., Palyo, S.A., Gudmundsdottir, B., Miller, L.M., & Colder, C.R. ( 2004). Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): A replication with motor vehicle accident survivors. Psychological Assessment, 16, 289-298.
14.
Benotsch, E.G., Brailey, K., Vasterling, J.J., Uddo, M., Contans, J.I., & Sutker, P.B. ( 2000). War zone stress, personal and environmental resources and PTSD symptoms in Gulf War veterans: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 205-213.
15.
Biggam, F.H., & Powers, K.G. ( 1997). Social support and psychological distress in a group of incarcerated young offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 41, 213-230.
16.
Blitz, C.L., Wolff, N., & Shi, J. ( 2008). Physical victimization in prison: The role of mental illness. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry , 31, 385-393.
17.
Bonta, J., & Gendreau, P. ( 1987). Reexamining the cruel and unusual punishment of prison life. Law and Human Behavior, 14, 347-372.
18.
Boxer, P., Middlemass, K., & Delorenzo, T. ( 2009). Exposure to violent crime during incarceration: Effects on psychological adjustment following release. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 793-807.
19.
Briere, J. ( 1996). Psychometric review of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 . In B. H. Stamm (Ed.), Measurement of stress, trauma, and adaptation (pp. 373-377). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press.
20.
Briere, J., & Elliott, D.M. ( 2003). Prevalence and symptomatic sequelae of self-reported childhood physical and sexual abuse in a general population sample of men and women. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal , 27, 1205-1222.
21.
Briere, J., & Jordan, C.E. ( 2004). Violence against women: Outcome complexity and implications for assessment and treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 19, 1252-1276.
22.
Briere, J., & Runtz, M. ( 1989). The Trauma Symptom Checklist (TSC-33): Early data on a new scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 151-163.
23.
Brinded, P., Alexander, M.J., Simpson, I.F., Laidlaw, T.M., Farley, N., & Fiona, M. ( 2001). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in New Zealand prisons: A national study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 35, 166-173.
24.
Bukstel, L.H., & Kilmann, P.R. ( 1980). Psychological effects of imprisonment on confined individuals . Psychological Bulletin, 88, 469-493.
25.
Campbell, J. ( 2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence . The Lancet, 359, 1331-1336.
26.
Chen, M.K., & Shapiro, J.M. ( 2007). Do harsher prison conditions reduce recidivism? A discontinuity-based approach. American Law and Economics Review, 9, 1-29.
27.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. ( 1985). Stress, social support and the buffering hypothesis . Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.
28.
Colvin, M. ( 1992). The penitentiary in crisis. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
29.
Colvin, M. ( 2000). Crime and coercion. New York : St. Martin’s Press.
30.
Colvin, M. ( 2007). Applying differential coercion and social support theory to prison organizations: The case of the Penitentiary of New Mexico . The Prison Journal, 87, 367-387.
31.
Colvin, M., Cullen, F.T., & Vander Ven, T. (2002). Coercion, social support and crime: An emerging theoretical consensus. Criminology , 40, 19-42.
32.
Cooper, C., & Berwick, S. ( 2001). Factors affecting psychological well-being of three groups of suicide prone prisoners. Current Psychology , 20, 169-182.
33.
Cooper, C., & Livingston, M. (1991). Depression and coping mechanisms in prisoners. Work & Stress, 5, 149-154.
34.
Cullen, F.T. ( 1994). Social support as an organizing concept for criminology: Presidential address to the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Justice Quarterly, 11, 527-559.
35.
Cullen, F.T., Wright, J.P., & Chamlin, M.B. ( 1999). Social support and social reform: A progressive crime control agenda. Crime & Delinquency, 2, 188-207.
36.
Cummins, R.C. ( 1988). Perceptions of social support, receipt of supportive behaviors, and locus of control as moderators of the effects of chronic stress . American Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 685-700.
37.
Davies, H., & Flannery, D. ( 1998). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents exposed to violence. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 45, 341-353.
38.
DeBlasio, K.W. ( 2005). Literacy, Education, and Rehabilitation Act. Retrieved, from http://www.petitiononline.com/LERA/petition.html
39.
Dunn, G.E., Ryan, J.J., & Dunn, C.E. ( 1994). Trauma symptoms in substance abusers with and without histories of childhood abuse. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs , 26, 357-360.
40.
Dutton, D.G. ( 1995). Trauma symptoms and PTSD-like profiles in perpetrators of intimate violence. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 299-316.
41.
Elliott, D.M., & Briere, J. ( 1992). Sexual abuse trauma among professional women: Validating the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40). Child Abuse & Neglect, 16, 391-398.
42.
Elliott, D.M., Mok, D.S., & Briere, J. ( 2004). Adult sexual assault: Prevalence, symptomatology, and sex differences in the general population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 203-211.
43.
Field, A. ( 2005). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44.
Flannery, D.J. ( 2006). Violence and mental health in everyday life: Prevention and intervention strategies for children and adolescents. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
45.
Flannery, D., Singer, M., Van Dulmen, M., Kretschmar, J., & Belliston, L. ( 2007). Exposure to violence, mental health and violent behavior . In D. J. Flannery, A. Vazsonyi, & I. Waldman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of violent behavior and aggression (pp. 306-321). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
46.
Flannery, D.J., Singer, M.I., & Wester, K. ( 2001). Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 435-442.
47.
Foa, E.B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D.M., Tolin, D.F., & Orsillo, S.M. ( 1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11, 303-314.
48.
Follette, V.M., Polusny, M.M., Bechtle, A.E., & Naugle, A.E. ( 1996). Cumulative trauma: The impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 25-35.
49.
Gavranidou, M., & Rosner, R. ( 2003). The weaker sex? Gender and post-traumatic stress disorder . Depression and Anxiety, 17, 130-139.
50.
Gavrilovic, J.J., Schutzwohl, M., Fazel, M., & Priebe, S. ( 2005). Who seeks treatment after a traumatic event and who does not? A review of findings on mental health service utilization. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 595-605.
51.
Gendreau, P., Goggin, C.E., & Law, M.A. ( 1997). Predicting prison misconducts. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 414-431.
52.
Gold, S.R., Milan, L.D., Mayall, A., & Johnson, A.E. ( 1994). A cross-validation study of the Trauma Symptom Checklist: The role of mediating variables. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 12-26.
53.
Green, B.L., Miranda, J., Daroowalla, A., & Siddique, J. ( 2005). Trauma exposure, mental health functioning, and program needs of women in jail. Crime & Delinquency, 51, 133-151.
54.
Haden, S.C., & Scarpa, A. ( 2008). Community violence victimization and depressed mood: The moderating effects of coping and social support. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1213-1234.
55.
Haney, C. ( 2001). The psychological impact of incarceration: Implications for post prison adjustment. Available from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/prison2home02/haney.pdf
56.
Haney, C. ( 2006). Reforming punishment: Psychological limits to the pains of imprisonment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
57.
Harvard Mental Health Letter. (2007, February). The risk for PTSD: New findings. Retrieved from https://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/Harvard_Mental_Health_Letter/2007/February
58.
Hobfoll, S.E., Spielberger, C.D., Breznitz, S., Figley, C., Folkman, S., Lepper-Green, B., . . . van der Kolk, B. (1991). War-related stress. American Psychologist, 46, 848-855.
59.
Hochstetler, A., Murphy, D., & Simons, R.L. ( 2004). Damaged goods: Exploring the effects of victimization on released prisoners’ distress. Crime & Delinquency , 50, 436-457.
60.
Hodgins, S., & Cote, G. ( 1990). Prevalence of mental disorders among penitentiary inmates in Quebec. Canada’s Mental Health, 38, 1-4.
61.
Holmbeck, G.M. ( 1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric psychology literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599-610.
62.
Houck, K.D.F., & Loper, A.B. ( 2002). The relationship of parenting stress to adjustment among mothers in prison. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 72, 548-558.
63.
Huebner, B. ( 2003). Administrative determinants of inmate violence: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 107-117.
64.
Ireland, J. ( 2001). Distinguishing the perpetrators and victims of bullying behavior in a prison environment: A study of male and female prisoners . Legal and Criminological Psychology, 6, 229-247.
65.
James, D.J., & Glaze, L.E. ( 2006). Mental health problems of prison and jail inmates . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
66.
Kilpatrick, D.G., Saunders, B.W., & Smith, D.W. ( 2003). Child and adolescent victimization in America: Prevalence and implications. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
67.
Koss, M.P., Bailey, J.A., Yuan, N.P., Herrera, V., & Lichter, E.L. ( 2003). Depression and PTSD in survivors of male violence: Research and training initiatives to facilitate recovery. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 130-142.
68.
Kotulak, R. ( 1997). Inside the brain: Revolutionary discoveries of how the mind works. Kansas City, MO: Andrews McNeel.
69.
Krupnick, J.L., Green, B., Stockton, P., Goodman, L., Corcoran, C., & Petty, R. ( 2004). Mental health effects of adolescent trauma exposure in a female college sample; exploring differential outcomes based on experiences of unique trauma types and dimensions. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 67, 264-279.
70.
Lang, J., Rodgers, C.S., Laffaye, C., Satz, L.E., Dresselhaus, T.R., & Stein, M.B. ( 2003). Sexual trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and health behavior. Behavioral Medicine, 28, 150-158.
71.
Lindquist, C.H., & Lindquist, C.A. (1997). Gender differences in distress: Mental health consequences of environmental stress among jail inmates . Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 15, 503-523.
72.
Listwan, S.J., Jonson, C.L., Cullen, F.T., & Latessa, E.J. ( 2008). Cracks in the penal harm movement: Evidence from the field. Criminology and Public Policy, 7, 423-465.
73.
Lowenkamp, C.T., & Latessa, E.J. ( 2005). Evaluation of Ohio’s RECLAIM funded programs, community corrections facilities, and DYS facilities (Technical report). Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati .
74.
Mabli, J., Holley, C., Patrick, J., & Walls, J. ( 1979). Age and prison: Increasing age heterogeneity as a violence reduction strategy. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 6, 175-186.
75.
MacKenzie, D.L. ( 1987). Age and adjustment to prison: Interactions with age and anxiety. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 14, 427-447.
76.
McCorkle, R. ( 1993). Fear of victimization and symptoms of psychopathology among prison inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 19, 27-41.
77.
McCorkle, R., Meithe, T., & Drass, K. ( 1995). The root of prison violence: A test of deprivation, management and "not-sototal" institution models. Crime & Delinquency , 41, 317-331.
78.
Mumola, C.J. ( 2005). Suicide and homicide in state prisons and local jails (NCJ 210036). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
79.
Nicolaidis, C., Curry, M., McFarland, B., & Gerrity, M. ( 2004). Violence, mental health, and physical symptoms in an academic internal medicine practice. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 19, 819-827.
80.
Nishith, P., Resick, P.A., & Mueser, K.T. ( 2001). Sleep difficulties and alcohol use motives in female rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 469-479.
81.
Paterline, B.A., & Petersen, D.M. (1999). Structural and social psychological determinants of prisonization. Journal of Criminal Justice , 5, 427-441.
82.
Paulus, P., Cox, V., McCain, G., & Chandler, J. ( 1975). Some effects of crowding in a prison environment . Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 5, 86-91.
83.
Poehlmann, J. ( 2005). Incarcerated mothers’ contact with children, perceived family relationships, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 350-357.
84.
Sarason, B. R., Sarason, I. G., & Pierce, G. R. (Eds.). (1990). Social support: An interactional view. New York, NY: Wiley.
85.
Sarason, I.G., Sarason, B.R., Shearin, E.N., & Pierce, G.R. ( 1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 4, 497-510.
86.
Scarpa, A. ( 2003). Community violence exposure in young adults. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 4, 210-227.
87.
Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., Bowser, F., Hurley, J.D., Pappert, C.A., Romero, N., & Van Voorhees, E. (2002). Community violence exposure in university students: A replication and extension. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 253-272.
88.
Scarpa, A., & Haden, S.C. ( 2006). Community violence victimization and aggressive behavior: The moderating effects of coping and social support. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 502-515.
89.
Scarpa, A., Haden, S.C., & Hurley, J. ( 2006). Community violence victimization and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder: The moderating effects of coping and social support. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 446-469.
90.
Scarpa, A., Hurley, J.D., Shumate, H.W., & Haden, S.C. ( 2005). Lifetime prevalence and socioemotional effects of hearing about community violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 21, 5-23.
91.
Segrin, C., & Flora, F. ( 2001). Perceptions of relational histories, marital quality, and loneliness when communication is limited: An examination of married prison inmates. Journal of Family Communication, 1, 151-173.
92.
Seymour, J. ( 1982). Environmental sanctuaries for susceptible prisoners . In R. Johnson & H. Toch (Eds.), The pains of imprisonment (pp. 267-284). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
93.
Sommers, M.S., & Buschur, C. ( 2004). Injury in women who are raped. Dimensions in Critical Care Nursing, 23, 62-68.
94.
Steadman, H.J., Osher, F.C., Robbins, P.C., Case, B., & Samuels, S. ( 2009). Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates . Psychiatric Services, 60, 761-765.
95.
Stein, M.B., Lang, A.J., Laffaye, L., Staz, L.E., Lenox, R.J., & Dresselhaus, T.R. (2004). Relationship of sexual assault history to somatic symptoms and health anxiety in women. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26, 178-183.
96.
Steiner, B. ( 2009). Assessing static and dynamic influences on inmate violence levels. Crime & Delinquency, 55, 134-161.
97.
Terr, L.C. ( 1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 48, 10.
98.
Toch, H. ( 1977). Living in prison: The ecology of survival. New York, NY: Free Press.
99.
Toch, H., & Adams, K. ( 1986). Pathology and disruptiveness among prison inmates . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 23, 7-21.
100.
Turner, R.J., Lloyd, D.A., & Wheaton, B. ( 1995). The epidemiology of social stress. American Sociological Review, 60, 104-125.
101.
Ullman, S.E., & Filipas, H.H. ( 2001). Predictors of PTSD symptom severity and social reactions in sexual assault victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 369-389.
102.
Unnever, J.D., Colvin, M., & Cullen, F.T. ( 2004). Crime and coercion: A test of core theoretical propositions . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 41, 244-268.
103.
Winfree, L.T. ( 1985). American jail death rates: A comparison of the 1978 and 1983 jail census data (NCJ 101631). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
104.
Wolff, N., Blitz, C., & Shi, J. ( 2007). Rates of sexual victimization inside prison for people with and without mental disorder. Psychiatric Services , 58, 1087-1094.
105.
Wooldredge, J.D. ( 1998). Inmate lifestyles and opportunities for victimization . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 480-502.
106.
Wooldredge, J.D. ( 1999). Inmate experiences and psychological well-being . Criminal Justice and Behavior, 26, 235-250.
107.
Zamble, E., & Porporino, F. ( 1988). Coping, behavior, and adaptation in prison inmates . New York, NY: Springer.
108.
Zamble, E., & Porporino, F. ( 1990). Coping, imprisonment, and rehabilitation: Some data and their implications. Criminal Justice and Behavior , 17, 53-70.
109.
Zlotnick, C., Shea, M.T., Begin, A., Pearlstein, T., Simpson, E., & Costello, E. ( 1996). The validation of the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40 (TSC-40) in a sample of inpatients. Child Abuse & Neglect , 20, 503-510.
