Emerging adults (approximately 18 to 25 years of age) experience heightened self-exploration regarding their beliefs and values, including those concerning religiosity and spirituality. The purpose of this article is to review the literature regarding religiosity and spirituality in emerging adulthood. First, we document developmental advances in physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development that support this exploration along with theoretical and empirical work on how religiosity and spirituality develop during this time period. Second, we examine the research on prevalence rates for and correlates of religiosity and spirituality. Third, we examine socializing agents of religiosity and spirituality that document parents’ indirect role relative to other adults, peers, and the media. Next, we examine the role that culture, community, and gender play in the development and socialization of religious and spiritual beliefs and practices. Lastly, future research directions and implications of the findings are discussed.
Allport, G.W., & Ross, J.M. ( 1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 432-443.
2.
Arnett, J.J. ( 1995). Adolescents’ uses of media for self-socialization . Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24, 519-533.
3.
Arnett, J.J. ( 2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist , 55, 469-480.
4.
Arnett, J.J. ( 2003). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups. In J.J. Arnett & N.L. Galambos (Eds.), New directions for child and adolescent development, 100, Exploring cultural conceptions of the transition to adulthood (pp. 63-75). San Francisco : Jossey-Bass.
5.
Arnett, J.J. ( 2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: Oxford University Press.
6.
Arnett, J.J. (2007). (Ed.). Encyclopedia of children, adolescents, and the media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
7.
Arnett, J.J., & Jensen, L.A. ( 2002). A congregation of one: Individualized religious beliefs among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research , 17, 451-467.
8.
Arnett, J.J., & Tanner, J.L. (Eds.). (2006). Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9.
Astin, A.W., & Astin, H.S. ( 2003). Spirituality in college students: Preliminary findings from a national study (pp. 1-6). Los Angeles: UCLA.
10.
Astin, A.W., Astin, H.S., Lindolm, J.A., Bryant, A.N., Calderon, S., & Szelényi, K. (2005a). The spiritual life of college students: A national survey of college students’ search for meaning and purpose. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute.
11.
Astin, A.W., Astin, H.S., Lindolm, J.A., Bryant, A.N., Calderon, S., & Szelényi, K. (2005b). Spirituality and the professoriate: A national study of faculty beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors . Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute.
12.
Barry, C.M., & Nelson, L.J. ( 2005). The role of religion in the transition to adulthood for young emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 34, 245-255.
13.
Barry, C.M., & Nelson, L.J. ( 2008). The role of religious beliefs and practices on emerging adults’ perceived competencies, perceived importance ratings, and global self-worth. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 32, 509-521.
14.
Barry, C.M., Padilla-Walker, L.M., Madsen, S.D., & Nelson, L.J. ( 2008). Impact of maternal relationship quality on emerging adults’ prosocial tendencies: Indirect effects via regulation of prosocial values . Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 37, 581-591.
15.
Barry, C.M., & Wentzel, K.R. ( 2006). Friend influence on prosocial behavior: The role of motivational factors and friendship characteristics. Developmental Psychology , 42, 153-163.
16.
Beaudoin, T. ( 1998). Virtual faith: The irreverent spiritual quest of Generation X. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17.
Benson, P.L., Roehlkepartain, E.C., & Rude, S.P. ( 2003). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Toward a field of inquiry. Applied Developmental Science, 7, 204-212.
18.
Berry, J.W. ( 1999). Aboriginal cultural identity. Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 19, 1-36.
19.
Beyers, W.C.J., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2008, March). Does identity precede intimacy? An Eriksonian approach to romantic development in emerging adulthood. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society of Research in Adolescence, Chicago, IL .
20.
Booth, M. ( 2002). Arab adolescents facing the future: Enduring ideals and pressures to change. In B.B. Brown , R.W. Larson, & T.S. Saraswathi (Eds.), The world’s youth: Adolescence in eight regions of the globe (pp. 207-242). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
21.
Bowen-Reid, T.L., & Smalls, C. ( 2004). Stress, spirituality and health promoting behaviours among African American college students. The Western Journal of Black Studies, 28, 283-291.
22.
Boyatzis, C.J. ( 2005). Religious and spiritual development in childhood . In R.F. Paloutzian & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 123-143). New York: Guilford Press.
23.
Boyatzis, C.J., & Janicki, D. ( 2003). Parent-child communication about religion: Survey and diary data on unilateral transmission and bi-directional reciprocity styles . Review of Religious Research, 44, 252-270.
24.
Boyd-Franklin, N. ( 2003). Black families in therapy: An African-American experience (2nd ed.). New York : Guilford Press.
25.
Braskamp, L.A. ( 2008). The religious and spiritual journeys of college students . In D. Jacobsen & R.H. Jacobsen (Eds.), The American university in a postsecular age (pp. 117-134). New York: Oxford University Press.
26.
Brown, J.D. ( 2006). Emerging adults in a media-saturated world. In J.J. Arnett & J.L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 279-299). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
27.
Cannister, M.W. ( 1999). Mentoring and the spiritual well-being of late adolescents . Adolescence, 34, 769-779.
28.
Carbery, J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Friendship and need fulfillment during three phases of young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 393-409.
29.
Cheah, C.S.L., & Nelson, L.J. ( 2004). The role of acculturation in the emerging adulthood of Aboriginal college students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 495-507.
30.
Clark, L. ( 2002). U.S. adolescent religious identity, the media, and the ‘‘funky’’ side of religion. Journal of Communication, 52, 794-811.
31.
Corcoran, M., & Matsudaira, J. (2005). Is it getting harder to get ahead? Economic attainment in early adulthood for two cohorts. In R.A. Settersten, Jr., F.F. Furstenberg, Jr., & R.G. Rumbaut (Eds.), On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, research, and public policy (pp. 356-395). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
32.
Cornwall, M. ( 1989). Faith development of men and women over the life span . In S. Bahr & E. Peterson (Eds.), Aging and the family (pp. 115-139). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books/ D.C. Heath.
33.
Côté, J.E. ( 1997). An empirical test of the identity capital model . Journal of Adolescence, 20, 421-437.
34.
Day, J.M., & Naedts, M.H.L. (1995). Convergence and conflict in the development of moral judgment and religious judgment. Journal of Education, 177, 1-20.
35.
De Haan, L.G., & Schulenberg, J. (1997). The covariation of religion and politics during the transition to young adulthood: Challenging global identity assumptions. Journal of Adolescence, 20, 537-552.
36.
de Vaus, D., & McAllister, I. (1987). Gender differences in religion: A test of structural location theory. American Sociological Review, 52, 472-481.
37.
Denham, S.A., Neal, K., & Bassett, H.H. ( 2004, April). ‘‘You hurt my feelings pretty bad’’: Parents’ and children’s emotions as contributors to the development of forgiveness. Paper presented at the biennial Conference on Human Development, Washington, DC.
38.
Diamond, M.R. (Ed.). (2008). Encountering faith in the classroom: Turning difficult discussions into constructive engagement. Sterling, VA: Stylus .
39.
Dollahite, D.C., & Marks, L.D. ( 2006). Teaching correct principles: Promoting spiritual strength in LDS young people. In K.M. Yust, A.N. Johnson, S.E. Sasso , & E.C. Roehlkepartain (Eds.), Nurturing child and adolescent spirituality: Perspectives from the world’s religious traditions (pp. 394-408). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
40.
Dorn, L., Dahl, R., Woodward, H., & Biro, F. ( 2006). Defining the boundaries of early adolescence: A user’s guide to assessing pubertal status and pubertal timing in research with adolescents . Applied Developmental Science, 1, 30-56.
41.
Elkind, D. ( 1971). The development of religious understanding in children and adolescents. In M. P. Strommen (Ed.), Research on religious development (pp. 655-685). New York: Hawthorn Books.
42.
Elkind, D. ( 1978). Understanding the young adolescent. Adolescence, 13, 127-134.
43.
Erikson, E. ( 1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York : Norton.
44.
Feldman, K., & Newcomb, T. ( 1969). The impact of college on students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
45.
Felty, K., & Poloma, M. ( 1991). From sex differences to gender role beliefs: Exploring effects on six dimensions of religiosity. Sex Roles, 23, 181-193.
46.
Finlay, A.K., Flanagan, C., & Black, S. ( 2007). Service as a developmental opportunity: Building connections for vulnerable youths. Saint Paul, MN: National Youth Leadership Council.
47.
Fowler, J.W. ( 1981). Stages of faith. San Francisco : HarperCollins.
48.
Fowler, J.W. ( 1991). Stages in faith consciousness. In F. Oser & W.G. Scarlett (Eds.), Religious development in childhood and adolescence . New Directions for Child Development, 52, 21-45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
49.
Fowler, J.W. ( 2001). Faith development theory and the postmodern challenges . International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 11, 159-172.
50.
Fowler, J.W., & Dell, M.L. ( 2006). Stages of faith from infancy through adolescence: Reflections on three decades of faith development theory. In E.C. Roehlkepartain, P.E. King, L. Wagener, & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 34-45). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
51.
Francis, L.J., & Gibson, H.M. ( 1993). Parental influence and adolescent religiosity: A study of church attendance and attitude toward Christianity among adolescents 11 to 12 and 15 to 16 years old. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 3, 241-253.
52.
Fulton, A.S. ( 1997). Identity status, religious orientation, and prejudice . Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 1-11.
53.
Galaway, B., & Huston, J. (Eds.). (1996). Youth in transition: Perspectives on research and policy. Toronto: Thompson Educational.
54.
Gilliam, A.K., Barry, C.M., & Bacchus, N.A. ( 2008). The relation between stress and college adjustment: The moderating role of spirituality. Modern Psychological Studies , 13, 84-101.
55.
Goodman, R.L. ( 2006). Entering the world, entering Torah: Moving from the natural to the sacred in the Jewish life cycle. In K.M. Yust, A.N. Johnson, S.E. Sasso, & E.C. Roehlkepartain (Eds.), Nurturing child and adolescent spirituality: Perspectives from the world’s religious traditions (pp. 143-156). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
56.
Granqvist, P., & Hagekull, B. ( 1999). Religiousness and perceived childhood attachment: Profiling socialized correspondence and emotional compensation. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38, 254-273.
57.
Gunnoe, M.L., & Moore K.A. ( 2002). Predictors of religiosity among youth aged 17-22: A longitudinal study of the National Survey of Children. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 613-622.
58.
Halpern, C.T., Waller, M.W., Spriggs, A., & Hallfors, D.D. (2006). Adolescent predictors of emerging adult sexual patterns. Journal of Adolescent Health , 39, 1-10.
59.
Hamil-Luker, J., Land, K.C., & Blau, J. ( 2004). Diverse trajectories of cocaine use through early adulthood among rebellious and socially conforming youth. Social Science Research, 33, 300-321.
60.
Hartup, W.W., & Stevens, N. ( 1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course . Psychological Bulletin, 121, 355-370.
61.
Harvard IOP. ( 2008). The 14th Biannual Youth Survey of Politics and Public Service. Retrieved May 18th 2008, from http://www.iop.harvard.edu/var/ezp_site/storage/fckeditor/file/spring%20poll%2008%20-%20topline.pdf
62.
Higher Education Research Institute. (HERI). ( 2000-2003). Preliminary findings on spiritual development and the college experience: A longitudinal analysis. Retrieved May 18th, 2008, from http://spirituality.ucla.edu/results/Longitudinal_00-03.pdf
63.
Hill, P.C., Pargament, K.I., Hood, R.W., McCullough, M.E., Swyers, J.P., Larson, D.B., et al. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 30, 51-77.
64.
Hoge, D., Johnson, B., & Luidens, D.A. ( 1993). Determinants of church involvement of young adults who grew up in Presbyterian churches. Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion, 32, 242-255.
65.
Inglehart, R., Basaňez, M., Dåez-Medrano, J., Halman, L., & Luijkx, R. ( 2004). Human beliefs and values: A cross-cultural sourcesbook based upon the 1999-2002 values surveys. Mexico City: Siglo Veintiuno Editores.
66.
Kass, J. ( 2001). Mentoring students in the development of leadership skills, health-promoting behavior, and pro-social behavior: A rationale for teaching contemplative practices in university education. Paper presented at the Colloquium on Contemplative Practice in Higher Education , Lesley University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
67.
Kass, J.D., Friedman, R., Leserman, J., Zuttermeister, P., & Benson, H. ( 1991). Health outcomes and a new measure of spiritual experience . Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion , 30, 203-211.
68.
King, P.E., & Boyatzis, C.J. (2004). Exploring adolescent spiritual and religious development: Current and future theoretical and empirical perspectives . Applied Developmental Science, 8, 2-6.
69.
Kirkpatrick, L.A., & Shaver, P.R. ( 1990). Attachment theory and religion: Childhood attachments, religious beliefs and conversions. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29, 315-334.
70.
Knox, D., Langehough, S.O., & Walters, C. ( 1998). Religiosity and spirituality among college students . College Student Journal, 32, 430-432.
71.
Koenig, L.B., McGue, M., & Iacono, W.G. ( 2008). Stability and change in religiousness during emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 44, 532-543.
72.
Kuczynski, L. ( 2003). Beyond bidirectionality: Bilateral conceptual frameworks for understanding dynamics in parent-child relations. In L. Kuczynski (Ed.), Handbook of dynamics in parent-child relations (pp. 3-24). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
73.
Labouvie-Vief, G. ( 1985). Logic and self-regulation from youth to maturity: A model . In M. Commons, F. Richards, & C. Armon (Eds.), Beyond formal operations: Late adolescent and adult cognitive development (pp. 158-180). New York : Praeger.
74.
Labouvie-Vief, G. ( 2003). Dynamic integration: Affect, cognition, and self in adulthood . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 12, 201-206.
75.
Labouvie-Vief, G. ( 2006). Emerging structures of adult thought. In J.J. Arnett & J.L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 59-84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
76.
Larson, R.W.,Brown, B.B., & Mortimer, J.T. (Eds.). (2003). Adolescents’ preparation for the future: Perils and promise: A report of the study group on adolescence in the 21st century. Ann Arbor, MI: The Society for Research on Adolescence.
77.
Lee, J.J. ( 2002). Religion and college attendance: Change among students . The Review of Higher Education, 25, 369-384.
78.
Lefkowitz, E.S. ( 2005). ‘‘Things have gotten better’’: Developmental changes among emerging adults after the transition to university . Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 40-63.
79.
Lefkowitz, E.S., Boone, T.L., & Shearer, C.L. ( 2004). Communication with best friends about sex-related topics during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 33, 339-351.
80.
Levenson, M.R., Aldwin, C.M., & D’Mello, M. (2005). Religious development from adolescence to middle adulthood. In R.F. Paloutzian & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 144-161). New York: Guilford Press.
81.
Levesque, R.J.R. ( 2002). Not by faith alone: Religion, law, and adolescence . New York: New York University Press.
82.
Loewenthal, K.M., MacLeod, A.K., & Cinnirella, M. (2001). Are women more religious than men? Gender differences in religious activity among different religious groups in the UK. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 133-139.
83.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K.I., Tarakeshwar, N., & Swank, A. ( 2001). Religion in the home in the 1980s and 90s: A meta-analytic review and conceptual analysis of religion, marriage, and parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 559-596.
84.
Mahoney, A., & Tarakeshwar, N. (2005). Religion’s role in marriage and parenting in daily life and during family crises. In R.F. Paloutzian & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 177-195). New York: Guilford Press.
85.
Markstrom-Adams, C., Hofstra, G., & Dougher, K. ( 1994). The ego-virtue of fidelity: A case for the study of religion and identity formation in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 23, 453-469.
86.
Marler, P.L., & Hadaway, C.K. ( 2002). ‘‘Being religious’’ or ‘‘being spiritual’’; A zero-sum proposition? Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 289-300.
87.
Mattis, J.S., Ahluwalia, M.K., Cowie, S.E., & Kirkland-Harris, A.M. (2006). Ethnicity, culture, and spiritual development. In E.C. Roehlkepartain , P.E. King, L. Wagener, & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 283-296). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
88.
McKinney, J.P., & McKinney, K.G. (1999). Prayer in the lives of late adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 279-290.
89.
Meeus, J., Iedema, J., Helsen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419-461.
90.
Meier, A.M. ( 2003). Adolescents’ transition to first intercourse, religiosity, and attitudes about sex. Social Forces, 81, 1031-1052.
91.
Miller, W.R., & Thoresen, C.E. (2003). Spirituality, religion, and health: An emerging research field. American Psychologist , 58, 24-35.
92.
Moberg, D.O. ( 2002). Assessing and measuring spirituality: Confronting dilemmas of universal and particular evaluative criteria. Journal of Adult Development, 9, 47-60.
93.
Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. ( 1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development , Toronto, Canada.
94.
Montgomery-Goodnough, A., & Gallagher, S.J. (2007). Review of research on spiritual and religious formation in higher education. In S.M. Nielsen & M.S. Plakhotnik (Eds.), Proceedings of the sixth annual College of Education Research Conference: Urban and international education section (pp. 60-65). Miami, FL: International University. http://coeweb.fiu.edu/research_conference/
95.
Mullins, L.C., Brackett, K.P., Bogie, D.W., & Pruett, D. ( 2006). The impact of concentrations of religious denominational affiliations on the rate of currently divorced in counties in the United States . Journal of Family Issues, 27, 976-1000.
96.
Myers, S.M. ( 2006). Religious homogamy and marital quality: Historical and generational patterns, 1980-1997. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 292-304.
97.
Nelson, L.J. ( 2003). Rites of passage in emerging adulthood: Perspectives of young Mormons. In J. Arnett & N. Galambos (Eds.), New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development: Cultural Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood, 100, 33-49.
98.
Nelson, L.J., Badger, S., & Wu, B. ( 2004). The influence of culture in emerging adulthood: Perspectives of Chinese college students. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 26-36.
99.
Nelson, L.J., & Barry, C.M. ( 2005). Distinguishing features of emerging adulthood: The role of self-classification as an adult. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 242-262.
100.
Nelson, L.J., Padilla-Walker, L.M., Carroll, J.S., Madsen, S.D., Barry, C.M., & Badger, S. ( 2007). ‘‘If you want me to treat you like an adult, start acting like one!’’ Comparing the criteria for adulthood among emerging adults and their parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 665-674.
101.
Newberg, A., d’Aquili, E., & Rause, V. ( 2001). Why God won’t go away: Brain science and the biology of belief. New York: Ballantine .
102.
O’Connor, T.P., Hoge, D.R., & Alexander, E. ( 2002). The relative influence of youth and adult experiences on personal spirituality and church involvement. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, 723-732.
103.
Oser, F. ( 1991). The development of religious judgment. In F. Oser & W.G. Scarlett (Eds.), Religious development in childhood and adolescence . New Directions for Child Development, 52, 5-15. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
104.
Osgood, D.W., Ruth, G., Eccles, J.S., Jacobs, J.E., & Barber, B.L. ( 2005). Six paths to adulthood: Fast starters, parents without careers, educated partners, educated singles, working singles, and slow starters . In R.A. Settersten, Jr., F.F. Furstenberg, Jr., & R.G. Rumbaut (Eds.), On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, research and public policy (pp. 320-355). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
105.
Otieno, N. ( 2006). From naming to initiation: Child and adolescence in African Christian spirituality. In K.M. Yust, A.N. Johnson, S.E. Sasso , & E.C. Roehlkepartain (Eds.), Nurturing child and adolescent spirituality: Perspectives from the world’s religious traditions (pp. 122-131). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
106.
Ozorak, E.W. ( 1989). Social and cognitive influences on the development of religious beliefs and commitment in adolescence. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 28, 448-463.
107.
Ozorak, E.W. ( 2003). Love of God and neighbor: Religion and volunteer service among college students. Review of Religious Research , 44, 285-299.
108.
Padilla-Walker, L.M., Barry, C.M., Carroll, J.S., Madsen, S.D., & Nelson, L.J. ( 2008). Looking on the bright side: The role of identity status and gender on positive orientations during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 451-467.
109.
Padilla-Walker, L.M., Nelson, L.J., Carroll, J.S., & Jensen, A.C. ( 2010). More than just a game: Video games, internet use, and health outcomes in emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 39, 103-113.
110.
Paloutzian, R.F., & Park, C.L. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. New York: Guilford Press.
111.
Pardun, C., & McKee, K. ( 1995). Strange bedfellows: Symbols of religion and sexuality on MTV. Youth & Society, 26, 438-449.
112.
Pargament, K.I. ( 1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: Guilford Press .
113.
Park, J.Z., & Ecklund, E.H. ( 2007). Negotiating continuity: Family and religious socialization for second-generation Asian Americans. The Sociological Quarterly , 48, 93-118.
114.
Pascarella, E.T., Edison, M., Nora, A., Hagedorn, L.A., & Terenzini, P.T. (1996). Influences on student’s openness to diversity and challenge in the first year of college. Journal of Higher Education, 67, 174-195.
115.
Patel, E. ( 2007). Acts of faith: The story of an American Muslim, the struggle for the soul of a generation. Boston: Beacon Press.
116.
Perry, W.G., Jr. ( 1981). Cognitive and ethical growth. In A. Chickering (Ed.), The modern American college (pp. 76-116). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
117.
Piaget, J. ( 1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press (Originally published 1932).
118.
Reis, H.T., Lin, Y.C., Bennett, M.E., & Nezlek, J.B. ( 1993). Change and consistency in social participation during early adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 29, 633-645.
119.
Rew, L., & Wong, Y.J. ( 2006). A systematic review of associations among religiosity/spirituality and adolescent health attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 433-442.
120.
Roberts, D.F., & Foehr, U.G. ( 2004). Kids and media in America. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
121.
Roehlkepartain, E.C., & Patel, E. ( 2006). Congregations: Unexamined crucibles for spiritual development . In E.C. Roehlkepartain, P.E. King, L. Wagener , & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 324-336). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
122.
Rostosky, S.S., Danner, F., & Riggle, E. ( 2007). Is religiosity a protective factor against substance use in young adulthood? Only if you’re straight!Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 440-447.
123.
Russell, S.T. ( 2002). Queer in America: Citizenship for sexual minority youth . Applied Developmental Psychology, 6, 258-263.
124.
Sanchez, D., & Carter, R.T. ( 2005). Exploring the relationship between racial identity and religious orientation among African American college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 280-295.
125.
Sanders, J.L. ( 1998). Religious ego identity and its relationship to faith maturity. The Journal of Psychology, 132, 653-658.
126.
Schwartz, K.D. ( 2006). Transformations in parent and friend faith support predicting adolescents’ religious faith. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 16, 311-326.
127.
Sowell, E.R., Trauner, D.A., Gamst, A., & Jernigan, T.L. (2002). Development of cortical and subcortical brain structures in childhood and adolescence: A structural MRI study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 44, 4-16.
128.
Spilka, B., Hood, R.W., Jr., Hunsberger, B., & Gorsuch, R. ( 2003). The psychology of religion: An empirical approach (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford.
129.
Steinberg, L. ( 2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69-74.
Stern, M., & Karraker, K.H. (1989). Sex stereotyping of infants: A review of gender labelling studies. Sex Roles, 20, 501-522.
132.
Tamminen, K. ( 1994). Comparing Oser’s and Fowler’s developmental stages. Journal of Empirical Theology, 7, 75-112.
133.
Taylor, R.J., Chatters, L.M., Jayakody, R., & Levin, J.S. ( 1996). Black and white differences in religious participation: A multisample comparison. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 35, 403-410.
134.
Templeton, J.L., & Eccles, J.S. ( 2006). The relation between spiritual development and identity processes. In E.C. Roehlkepartain , P.E. King, L. Wagener , & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 252-265). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
135.
Uecker, J.E., Regnerus, M.D., & Vaaler, M.E. ( 2007). Losing my religion: The social sources of religious decline in early adulthood. Social Forces, 85, 1667-1692.
136.
Verma, S., & Santa Maria, M. (2006). The changing global context of adolescent spirituality. In E.C. Roehlkepartain , P.E. King, L. Wagener, & P.L. Benson (Eds.), The handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 124-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
137.
Verma, S., & Saraswathi, T.S. (2002). Adolescence in India: Street urchins or Silicon Valley millionaires? In B.B. Brown, R.W. Larson, & T.S. Saraswathi (Eds.), The world’s youth: Adolescence in eight regions of the globe (pp. 105-140). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
138.
Walker, E.F., Sabuwalla, Z., & Huot, R. ( 2004). Pubertal neuromaturation, stress sensitivity, and psychopathology . Development and Psychopathology, 16, 807-824.
139.
Waterman, A.S. ( 1985). Identity in the context of adolescent psychology . In Waterman, A.S. (Ed.), New directions for child development: Identity in adolescence: Processes and contents, 30, 5-24. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
140.
White, H.R., McMorris, B.J., Catalano, R.F., Fleming, C.B., Haggerty, K.P., & Abbott, R.D. ( 2006). Increases in alcohol and marijuana use during the transition out of high school into emerging adulthood: The effects of leaving home, going to college, and high school protective factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 810-822.
141.
Wilcox, W.B. ( 2002). Religion, convention, and paternal involvement . Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 780-792.
142.
Wuthnow, R. ( 1999). Growing up religious: Christians and Jews and their journeys of faith. Boston: Beacon.
143.
Xu, X., Hudspeth, C.D., & Bartowski, J.P. (2005). The timing of first marriage: Are there religious variations? Journal of Family Issues, 26, 584-618.
144.
Young, J.S., Cashwell, C.S., & Shcherbakova, J. (2000). The moderating relationship of spirituality on negative life events and psychological adjustment. Counseling and Values, 45, 49-57.
145.
Yust, K.M., Johnson, A.N., Sasso, S.E., & Roehlkepartain, E.C. (2006). Nurturing child and adolescent spirituality: Perspectives from the world’s religious traditions . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield .
146.
Zaleski, E.H., & Schiaffino, K.M. (2000). Religiosity and sexual risk-taking behavior during the transition to college. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 223-227.
147.
Zinnbauer, B.J., & Pargament, K.I. (2005). Religiousness and spirituality . In R.F. Paloutzian & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 21-42). New York: Guilford Press.
148.
Zullig, K.J., Ward, R.M., & Horn, T. ( 2006). The association between perceived spirituality, religiosity, and life satisfaction: The mediating role of self-rated health . Social Indicators Research, 79, 255-274.
