During the past two decades, a set of systematic comparative case analysis techniques has been developing at a steady pace. During the last few years especially, the main initial technique, qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), has been complemented by other related methods and techniques. The purpose of this article is to critically assess some main recent developments in this field. QCA and connected methods can be considered at two levels: as a research strategy and as a set of concrete techniques. The author first argues that such a strategy displays some decisive advantages in social science research, especially in small-and intermediate-N research designs. Second, QCA as well as three other related techniques, namely multi-value QCA (MVQCA), fuzzy sets and MSDO/MDSO, are presented in brief, and some current debates with regard to these techniques are also summarized. In the third section, the article surveys recent contributions and ongoing efforts that have provided some advances in the application of these techniques, around five key issues: case selection and model specification; measurement, dichotomization and linkage with theory; contradictions and non-observed cases; the time and process dimension; and the confrontation or combination with other methods. Finally, the article discuss the potential for further development of these methods in social science research broadly defined.
Abbott, A. (1995) ‘Sequence Analysis: New Methods for Old Ideas’ , Annual Review of Sociology21: 93–113 .
2.
Abbott, A. and Barman, E. (1997) ‘Sequence Comparison Via Alignment and Gibbs Sampling: A Formal Analysis of the Emergence of the Modern Sociological Article’ , Sociological Methodology27: 47–87 .
3.
Abell, P. (1987) The Syntax of Social Life: The Theory and Method of Comparative Narratives. Oxford: Clarendon Press .
4.
Abell, P. (2004) ‘Narrative Explanation: An Alternative to Variable-Centered Explanation?’ , Annual Review of Sociology30: 287–310 .
5.
Amenta, E. and Poulsen, J. D. (1996) ‘Social Politics in Context: The Institutional Politics Theory and Social Spending at the End of the New Deal’ , Social Forces75(1): 33–60 .
6.
Amoroso, L. M. and Ragin, C. C. (1999) ‘Two Approaches to Understanding Control of Voluntary and Involuntary Job Shifts among Germans and Foreigners from 1991 to 1996’ , Quarterly Journal of Economic Research2: 222–229 .
7.
Befani, B. and Sager, F. (2006) ‘QCA as a Tool for Realistic Evaluations: The Case of the Swiss Environmental Impact Assessment’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 263–284. New York: Springer .
8.
Befani, B. , Ledermann, S. and Sager, F. (forthcoming) ‘Realistic Evaluation and QCA: Conceptual Parallels and an Empirical Application’ , Evaluation12(2).
9.
Berg-Schlosser, D. (2004) ‘Review of: “L'analyse Quali-Quantitative Comparée (AQQC-QCA)” (G. De Meur and B. Rihoux, 2002)’ , European Sociological Review20(2): 162–165 .
10.
Berg-Schlosser, D. (forthcoming) ‘Comparative Research Design: Case and Variable Selection’, in B. Rihoux and C. Ragin (eds) Configurational Comparative Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA and London: Sage .
11.
Berg-Schlosser, D. and Cronqvist, L. (2005) ‘Macro-Quantitative vs Macro-Qualitative Methods in the Social Sciences–An Example from Empirical Democratic Theory Employing New Software’ , Historical Social Research4(30): 154–175 .
12.
Berg-Schlosser, D. and De Meur, G. (1994) ‘Conditions of Democracy in Interwar Europe: A Boolean Test of Major Hypotheses’ , Comparative Politics26(3): 253–279 .
13.
Berg-Schlosser, D. and De Meur, G. (1997) ‘Reduction of Complexity for a Small-N Analysis: A Stepwise Multi-Methodological Approach’ , Comparative Social Research16: 133–162 .
14.
Boswell, T. and Brown, C. (1999) ‘The Scope of General Theory: Methods for Linking Deductive and Inductive Comparative History’ , Sociological Methods and Research28(2): 154–185 .
15.
Brady, H. E. and Collier, D. , eds (2004) Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield .
16.
Braumoeller, B. F. and Goertz, G. (2000) ‘The Methodology of Necessary Conditions’ , American Journal of Political Science44(4): 844–858 .
17.
Brown, C. and Boswell, T. (1995) ‘Strikebreaking or Solidarity in the Great Steel Strike of 1919: A Split Labor Market, Game-Theoretic, and QCA Analysis’ , American Journal of Sociology100(6): 1479–1519 .
18.
Brueggemann, J. and Boswell, T. (1998) ‘Realizing Solidarity: Sources of Interracial Unionism during the Great Depression’ , Work and Occupations25(4): 436–482 .
19.
Bursens, P. (1999) Impact van instituties op beleidsvorming. Een institutionneel perspectief op besluitvorming in de communautaire pijler van de Europese Unie. Antwerp: Universitaire Instelling Antwerpen .
20.
Caren, N. and Panofsky, A. (2005) ‘TQCA: A Technique for Adding Temporality to Qualitative Comparative Analysis’ , Sociological Methods and Research2(34): 147–172 .
21.
Clément, C. (2004) ‘Un modèle commun d'effondrement de l'Etat? Une AQQC du Liban, de la Somalie et de l'ex-Yougoslavie’, Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 11(1): 35–50.
22.
Collier, D. (1993) ‘The Comparative Method’, in A. W. Finifter (ed.) Political Science: The State of the Discipline (II), pp. 105–119. Washington, DC: American Political Science Association .
23.
Cress, D. and Snow, D. (2000) ‘The Outcome of Homeless Mobilization: The Influence of Organization, Disruption, Political Mediation, and Framing’ , American Journal of Sociology105(4): 1063–1104 .
24.
Cronqvist, L. (2005) ‘Introduction to Multi-Value Qualitative Comparative Analysis (MVQCA)’, COMPASSS didactics paper No. 2005/4.
25.
Cronqvist, L. and Berg-Schlosser, D. (2006) ‘Determining the Conditions of HIV/AIDS Prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa: Employing New Tools of Macro-Qualitative Analysis’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 145–166. New York: Springer .
26.
Cronqvist, L. and Berg-Schlosser, D. (forthcoming) ‘Multi-Value QCA (MVQCA)’, in B. Rihoux and C. Ragin (eds) Configurational Comparative Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA and London: Sage .
27.
De Meur, G. (forthcoming) ‘MSDO/MDSO as a Tool for Model Specification’, in B. Rihoux and C. Ragin (eds) Configurational Comparative Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA and London: Sage .
28.
De Meur, G. and Berg-Schlosser, D. (1996) ‘Conditions of Authoritarianism, Fascism and Democracy in Inter-War Europe: Systematic Matching and Contrasting of Cases for “Small N” Analysis’ , Comparative Political Studies29(4): 423–468 .
29.
De Meur, G. and Rihoux, B. (2002) L'Analyse quali-quantitative comparée (AQQC QCA): approche, techniques et applications en sciences humaines. Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia-Bruylant .
30.
De Meur, G. , Bursens, P. and Gottcheiner, A. (2006) ‘MSDO/MDSO Revisited for Public Policy Analysis’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 67–94. New York: Springer .
31.
De Meur, G. , Yamasaki, S. and Rihoux, B. (forthcoming) ‘Critiques of Configurational Comparative Methods and “Critique of the Critiques”’, in B. Rihoux and C. Ragin (eds) Configurational Comparative Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA and London: Sage .
32.
Dion, D. (1998) ‘Evidence and Inference in the Comparative Case Study’, Comparative Politics127–145.
33.
Drass, K. A. and Spencer, J. W. (1987) ‘Accounting for Pre-Sentencing Recommendations: Typologies and Probation Officers' Theory of Office’ , Social Problems34(3): 277–293 .
34.
Duckles, B. M. , Hager, M. A. and Galaskiewicz, J. (2005) ‘How Nonprofits Close: Using Narratives to Study Organizational Processes’, in K. D. Elsbach (ed.) Qualitative Organizational Research: Best Papers from the Davis Conference on Qualitative Research, pp. 169–203. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing .
35.
Dumont, P. and Bäck, H. (forthcoming) ‘Green Parties and the Question of Governmental Participation’ , European Journal of Political Research.
36.
Ebbinghaus, B. (2005) ‘When Less is More: Selection Problems in Large-N and Small-N Cross-National Comparisons’ , International Sociology20(2): 133–152 .
37.
Ebbinghaus, B. and Visser, J. (1998) ‘When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950–95’ , MZES Arbeitspapiere/Working papersI/30: 1–37 .
38.
George, A. L. and Bennett, A. (2005) Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
39.
Gerring, J. (2004) ‘What is a Case Study and What is it Good for?’ , American Political Science Review98(2): 341–354 .
40.
Gerring, J. (2005) ‘Causation: A Unified Framework for the Social Sciences’ , Journal of Theoretical Politics17(2): 163–198 .
41.
Gerring, J. (forthcoming) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
42.
Goertz, G. (2006) Social Science Concepts: A User's Guide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
43.
Goertz, G. and Mahoney, J. (2005) ‘Two-Level Theories and Fuzzy-Set Analysis’ , Sociological Methods and Research33(4): 497–538 .
44.
Grassi, D. (2004) ‘La Survie des régimes démocratiques: une AQQC des démocraties de la “troisième vague” en Amérique du Sud’, Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 11(1): 17–33.
45.
Griffin, L. J. (1992) ‘Temporality, Events, and Explanation in Historical Sociology: An Introduction’ , Sociological Methods and Research20(4): 403–427 .
46.
Griffin, L. J. (1993) ‘Narrative, Event-Structure Analysis and Causal Interpretation in Historical Sociology’ , American Journal of Sociology98(5): 1094–1133 .
47.
Grimm, H. (2006) ‘Entrepreneurship Policy and Regional Economic Growth. Exploring the Link and Theoretical Implications’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 123–144. New York: Springer .
48.
Hampel, F. R. , Ronchetti, E. M. , Rousseeuw, P. J. and Stahel, W. (1986) Robust Statistics: The Approach Based on Influence Functions. New York: Wiley .
49.
Heikkila, T. (2003) ‘Institutional Boundaries and Common-Pool Resource Management: A Comparative Analysis of Water Management Programs in California’ , Journal of Policy Analysis and Management23(1): 97–117 .
50.
Heise, D. R. (1989) ‘Modeling Event Structures’ , Journal of Mathematical Sociology14(2–3): 139–169 .
51.
Hellström, E. (2001) Conflict Cultures: Qualitative Comparative Analysis of Environmental Conflicts in Forestry. Helsinki: The Finnish Society of Forest Science/The Finnish Forest Research Institute .
52.
Herrmann, A. and Cronqvist, L. (2005) ‘Fs/QCA and MVQCA: Different Answers to the Problem of Contradicting Observations in QCA’ , paper presented at the Third ECPR General Conference, Budapest.
53.
Hicks, A. M. (1994) ‘Qualitative Comparative Analysis and Analytical Induction: The Case of the Emergence of the Social Security State’ , Sociological Methods and Research23(1): 86–113 .
54.
Hodson, R. and Roscigno, V. J. (2004) ‘Organizational Success and Worker Dignity: Complementary or Contradictory?’ , American Journal of Sociology110(3): 672–708 .
55.
Katz, A. , Vom Hau, M. and Mahoney, J. (2005) ‘Explaining the Great Reversal in Spanish America: Fuzzy Set Analysis versus Regression Analysis’ , Sociological Methods and Research33(4): 539–573 .
56.
King, G. , Keohane, R. and Verba, S. (1994) Designing Social Enquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
57.
Kitchener, M. , Beynon, M. and Harrington, C. (2002) ‘Qualitative Comparative Analysis and Public Services Research: Lessons from an Early Application’ , Public Management Review4(4): 485–504 .
58.
Kittel, B. , Obinger, H. and Wagschal, U. (2000) ‘Wohlfahrtsstaaten im internationalen Vergleich. Politisch-institutionelle Faktoren der Entstehung und Entwicklungsdynamik’, in H. Obinger and U. Wagschal (eds) Der ‘gezügelte’ Wohlfahrtsstaat: Sozialpolitik in Australien, Japan, Schweiz, Kanada, Neuseeland and den Vereinigten Staaten, pp. 329–364. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag .
59.
Krook, M.-L. (2005) ‘Temporality and Causal Configurations: Combining Sequence Analysis and Fuzzy Set/Qualitative Comparative Analysis’ , paper presented at the Third ECPR General Conference, Budapest.
60.
Kvist, J. (2006) ‘Diversity, Ideal Types and Fuzzy Sets in Comparative State Research’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 167–184. New York: Springer .
61.
Levi-Faur, D. (2006) ‘A Question of Size? A Heuristics for Stepwise Comparative Research Design’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 43–66. New York: Springer .
62.
Lieberson, S. (2004) ‘Comments on the Use and Utility of QCA’ , Qualitative Methods: Newsletter of the American Political Science Association Organized Section on Qualitative Methods2(2): 13–14 .
63.
Lijphart, A. (1971) ‘Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method’ , American Political Science Review65(3): 682–693 .
64.
Lijphart, A. (1975) ‘The Comparable-Cases Strategy in Comparative Research’ , Comparative Political Studies8(2): 158–177 .
65.
Luoma, P. (2006) ‘Social Sustainability of Community Structures: A Systematic Comparative Analysis within the Oulu Region in Northern Finland’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 237–262. New York: Springer .
66.
Mahoney, J. (2003a) ‘Tentative Answers to Questions about Causal Mechanisms’ , paper presented at the American Political Science Association Meetings, Philadelphia.
67.
Mahoney, J. (2003b) ‘Strategies of Causal Assessment in Comparative Historical Analysis’, in J. Mahoney and D. Rueschemeyer (eds) Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, pp. 337–372. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
68.
Mahoney, J. and Goertz, G. (2004) ‘The Possibility Principle: Choosing Negative Cases in Qualitative Research’ , American Political Science Review98(4): 653–670 .
69.
Mahoney, J. and Rueschemeyer, D. , eds (2003) Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
70.
Markoff, J. (1990) ‘A Comparative Method: Reflections on Charles Ragin's Innovations in Comparative Analysis’ , Historical Methods23(4): 177–181 .
71.
Miethe, T. D. and Drass, K. A. (1999) ‘Exploring the Social Context of Instrumental and Expressive Homicides: An Application of Qualitative Comparative Analysis’ , Journal of Quantitative Criminology15(1): 1–21 .
72.
Moses, J. , Rihoux, B. and Kittel, B. (2005) ‘Mapping Political Methodology: Reflections on a European Perspective’ , European Political Science–EPS4(1): 55–68 .
73.
Nelson, K. (2004) ‘The Last Resort. Determinants of the Generosity of Means-Tested Minimum Income Protection in Welfare Democracies’, COMPASSS Working Paper 2004/21.
74.
Nomiya, D. (2001) ‘Minsyuu no hanran to shakai hendou: rekishiteki deita heno ouyou [Peasants' Rebellion and Social Change: Application (of QCA) to Historical Data]’, in N. Kanomata , D. Nomiya and K. Hasegawa (eds) Shituteki Hikaku Bunseki[Qualitative Comparative Analysis], pp. 79–94. Kyoto: Mineruva Syobo .
75.
Pawson, R. and Tilley, N. (1997) Realistic Evaluation. London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
76.
Peillon, M. (1996) ‘A Qualitative Comparative Analysis of Welfare Legitimacy’ , Journal of European Social Policy6(3): 175–190 .
77.
Pierson, P. (2003) ‘Big, Slow-Moving, and... Invisible: Macrosocial Processes in the Study of Comparative Politics’, in J. Mahoney and D. Rueschemeyer (eds) Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, pp. 177–207. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
78.
Popper, K. (1963) Conjectures and Refutations: the Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul .
79.
Przeworski, A. and Teune, H. (1970) The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry. New York: Wiley-Interscience .
80.
Ragin, C. C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press .
81.
Ragin, C. C. (1997) ‘Turning the Tables: How Case-Oriented Methods Challenge Variable-Oriented Methods’ , Comparative Social Research16: 27–42 .
82.
Ragin, C. C. (2000) Fuzzy-Set Social Science. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press .
83.
Ragin, C. C. (2002) ‘Préface’, in G. De Meur and B. Rihoux (eds) L'Analyse qualiquantitative comparée (AQQC-QCA). Approche, techniques et applications en sciences humaines, pp. 11–14. Louvain-la-Neuve: Academia-Bruylant .
84.
Ragin, C. C. (2004) ‘La Place de la comparaison: jalons pour la recherche comparative configurationnelle’ , Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée11(1): 118–129 .
85.
Ragin, C. C. (2006) ‘The Limitations of Net-Effects Thinking’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 13–41. New York: Springer .
86.
Ragin, C. C. and Becker, H. (1992) What is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
87.
Ragin, C. C. and Bradshaw, Y. W. (1991) ‘Statistical Analysis of Employment Discrimination: A Review and a Critique’ , Research in Social Stratification and Mobility10: 199–228 .
88.
Ragin, C. C. and Rihoux, B. (2004a) ‘Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA): State of the Art and Prospects’ , Qualitative Methods: Newsletter of the American Political Science Association Organized Section on Qualitative Methods2(2): 3–13 .
89.
Ragin, C.C. and Rihoux, B. (2004b) ‘Replies to Commentators: Reassurances and Rebuttals’ , Qualitative Methods: Newsletter of the American Political Science Association Organized Section on Qualitative Methods2(2): 21–24 .
90.
Ragin C. C. and Sonnett, J. (2004) ‘Between Complexity and Parsimony: Limited Diversity, Counterfactual Cases, and Comparative Analysis’, COMPASSS Working Paper 2004/23.
91.
Ragin, C. C. , Berg-Schlosser, D. and De Meur, G. (1996) ‘Political Methodology: Qualitative Methods’, in R. E. Goodin and H.-D. Klingemann (eds) A New Handbook of Political Science, pp. 749–768. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
92.
Rihoux, B. (2001) Les Partis politiques: organisations en changement. Le test des écologistes. Paris: L'Harmattan .
93.
Rihoux, B. (2003) ‘Bridging the Gap between the Qualitative and Quantitative Worlds? A Retrospective and Prospective View on Qualitative Comparative Analysis’ , Field Methods15(4): 351–365 .
94.
Rihoux, B. and Ragin, C. , eds (forthcoming) Configurational Comparative Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA and London: Sage .
95.
Rihoux, B., De Meur, G., Yamasaki, S. and Ronsse, S. (2004) ‘Ce n'est qu'un début, continuons le... débat. Un agenda pour la recherche’, Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 11(1): 145–53.
96.
Romme, A. G. L. (1995) ‘Boolean Comparative Analysis of Qualitative Data: A Methodological Note’ , Quality and Quantity29(4): 317–329 .
97.
Roscigno, V. J. and Hodson, R. (2004) ‘The Organizational and Social Foundations of Worker Resistance’ , American Sociological Review69(1): 14–39 .
98.
Rudel, T. K. and Roper, J. (1996) ‘Regional Patterns and Historical Trends in Tropical Deforestation, 1976–1990: A Qualitative Comparative Analysis’ , Ambio25(3): 160–166 .
99.
Rueschemeyer, D. and Stephens, J. D. (1997) ‘Comparing Historical Sequences: A Powerful Tool for Causal Analysis. A Reply to John Goldthorpe's “Current Issues in Comparative Macrosociology”’ , Comparative Social Research16: 55–72 .
100.
Sager, F. (2004) ‘Metropolitan Institutions and Policy Coordination: The Integration of Land Use and Transport Policies in Swiss Urban Areas’ , Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions18(2): 227–256 .
101.
Schneider, C. and Wagemann, C. (forthcoming) ‘Causal Complexity and FS/QCA: Making Use of Remote and Proximate Causal Conditions’ , European Journal of Political Research.
102.
Seawright, J. (2004) ‘Qualitative Comparative Analysis vis-a-vis Regression’ , Qualitative Methods: Newsletter of the American Political Science Association Organized Section on Qualitative Methods2(2): 14–17 .
103.
Sprinz, D. F. and Nahmias-Wolinsky, Y. , eds (2004) Models, Numbers and Cases: Methods for Studying International Relations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press .
104.
Stephens, J. D. (1998) ‘Historical Analysis and Causal Assessment in Comparative Research’ , APSA-CP. Newsletter of the APSA Organized Section in Comparative Politics9(1): 22–25 .
105.
Stevenson, W. B. and Greenberg, D. (2000) ‘Agency and Social Networks: Strategies of Action in a Social Structure of Position, Opposition, and Opportunity’ , Administrative Science Quarterly45(4): 651–678 .
106.
Swyngedouw, M. (2004) ‘Review of: “L'Analyse Quali-Quantitative Comparée (AQQC-QCA)” (G. De Meur and B. Rihoux, 2002)’ , European Sociological Review20(2): 161–162 .
107.
Tashakkori, A. and Teddlie, C. , eds (2003) Handbook of Mixed Methods in the Social and Behavioral Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
108.
Vanderborght, Y. and Yamasaki, S. (2004) ‘Des cas logiques... contradictoires? Un piège de l'AQQC déjoué à travers l'étude de la faisabilité politique de l'Allocation Universelle’, Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 11(1): 51–66.
109.
Varone, F. , Rihoux, B. and Marx, A. (2006) ‘A New Method for Policy Evaluation? Longstanding Challenges and the Possibilities of Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 213–236. New York: Springer .
110.
Watanabe, T. (2003) ‘Where Theory and Reality Meet: Using the Full Potential of QCA by Exploiting the Intersection Function of the QCA Software. International Comparison Analysis about the Occurrence of Social Movement’, COMPASSS Working Paper 2003/13.
111.
Williams, L. M. and Farrell, R. A. (1990) ‘Legal Response to Child Sexual Abuse in Daycare’ , Criminal Justice and Behavior17(3): 284–302 .
112.
Yamasaki, S. (2003) ‘Testing Hypotheses with QCA: Application to the Nuclear Phase-Out Policy in 9 OECD Countries’ , paper presented at the Second ECPR General Conference, Marburg.
113.
Yamasaki, S. and Spreitzer, A. (2006) ‘Beyond Methodological Tenets: The Worlds of QCA and SNA and their Benefits to Policy Analysis’, in B. Rihoux and H. Grimm (eds) Innovative Comparative Methods for Policy Analysis, pp. 95–120. New York: Springer .
114.
Yonetani, M. , Ishida, A. and Kosaka, K. (2003) ‘Determinants of Linguistic Human Rights Movements’ , paper presented at the Second ECPR General Conference, Marburg.
