Sexual harassment is a common experience among middle and high school students across the United States. Being the target of and even witnessing sexual harassment is associated with a number of negative consequences for adolescents. This study sought to explore early adolescent boys’ and girls’ reasoning about (a) perpetrating sexual harassment (i.e., making comments about another student’s body), (b) confronting sexual harassment when they are the target, and (c) confronting sexual harassment when they are the bystander or witness. Participants were 142 seventh-grade students (46 boys, 96 girls) ranging from 11 to 14 years old (Mage = 12.44 years, SDage = .61). Utilizing a quantitative content analysis, this study analyzed themes that emerged from adolescents’ open-ended responses to questions about sexual harassment and their perception of the consequences. The results suggest that adolescents’ reasoning about sexual harassment is complex, reflecting morality concerns, social pressures, and challenges with interpreting sexual interest within a context of sexually objectifying cultural scripts.
American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (2001). Hostile hallways: Bullying, teasing, and sexual harassment in school. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED454132.pdf
AndersonM.JiangJ. (2018, May31). Teens, social media & technology 2018. Pew Research Center.
4.
AyresM. M.FriedmanC. K.LeaperC. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61(7–8), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3
5.
BaileyB. (2017). Greetings and compliments or street harassment? Competing evaluations of street remarks in a recorded collection. Discourse & Society, 28(4), 353–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926517702979
6.
BirkettM.EspelageD. L. (2015). Homophobic name-calling, peer-groups, and masculinity: The socialization of homophobic behavior in adolescents. Social Development, 24(1), 184–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12085
7.
BoysenG. A. (2013). Confronting math stereotypes in the classroom: Its effect on female college students’ sexism and perceptions of confronters. Sex Roles, 69(5–6), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0287-y
8.
BrownB. B.LarsonJ. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In LernerR. M.SteinbergL. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 74–103). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy002004
9.
BrownC. S.MistryR. S.YipT. (2019). Moving from the Margins to the Mainstream: Equity and Justice as Key Considerations for Developmental Science. Child Development Perspectives, 13(4), 235–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12340
10.
BrownC. S.StoneE. A. (2016). Gender stereotypes and discrimination: how sexism impacts development. In Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 50, pp. 105–133). JAI. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2015.11.001
11.
BrownC. S. (2017). Discrimination in childhood and adolescence: A developmental intergroup approach. Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis.
12.
ChiodoD.WolfeD. A.CrooksC.HughesR.JaffeP. (2009). Impact of sexual harassment victimization by peers on subsequent adolescent victimization and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(3), 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.01.006
13.
CokerA. L.Cook-CraigP. G.WilliamsC. M.FisherB. S.ClearE. R.GarciaL. S.HeggeL. M. (2011). Evaluation of Green Dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 777–796. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211410264
14.
CompasB. E.Connor-SmithJ. K.SaltzmanH.ThomsenA. H.WadsworthM. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87
CoyneS. M.WardL. M.KroffS. L.DavisE. J.HolmgrenH. G.JensenA. C.EricksonS. E.EssigL. W. (2019). Contributions of mainstream sexual media exposure to sexual attitudes, perceived peer norms, and sexual behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(4), 430–436. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.11.016
17.
CzoppA. M.MonteithM. J.MarkA. Y. (2006). Standing up for a change: Reducing bias through interpersonal confrontation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 784–803. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.784
18.
DhirA.TorsheimT.PallesenS.AndreassenC. (2017). Do online privacy concerns predict selfie behavior among adolescents, young adults and adults?Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 815. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00815
19.
FredricksonB. L.RobertsT. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
20.
FriedmanM.KoeskeG.SilvestreA.KorrW.SitesE. (2006). The impact of gender-role nonconforming behavior, bullying, and social support on suicidality among gay male youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(5), 621–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.04.014
21.
GalambosN. L. (2004). Gender and gender role development in adolescence. In LernerR. M.SteinbergL. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 233–262). John Wiley.
22.
GoldsteinS. E.MalanchukO.Davis-KeanP. E.EcclesJ. S. (2007). Risk factors of sexual harassment by peers: A longitudinal investigation of African American and European American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(2), 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00523.x
23.
GruberJ.FineranS. (2007). The impact of bullying and sexual harassment on middle and high school girls. Violence Against Women, 13(6), 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801207301557
24.
Gutzwiller-HelfenfingerE.GasserL.MaltiT. (2010). Moral emotions and moral judgments in children’s narratives: Comparing real-life and hypothetical transgressions. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2010(129), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.273
25.
HandJ. Z.SanchezL. (2000). Badgering or bantering? Gender differences in experience of, and reactions to, sexual harassment among US high school students. Gender & Society, 14(6), 718–746. http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.uky.edu/stable/190371
26.
HarterS. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. Guilford Press.
27.
HillC.KearlH. (2011). Crossing the line: Sexual harassment at school. American Association of University Women.
28.
HillJ. P.LynchM. E. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In Brooks-GunnJ.PetersonA. C. (Eds.), Girls at puberty (pp. 201–228). Springer.
29.
HydeJ. S.BiglerR. S.JoelD.TateC. C.van AndersS. M. (2019). The future of sex and gender in psychology: Five challenges to the gender binary. American Psychologist, 74(2), 171. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000307
30.
JewellJ.BrownC. S. (2013). Sexting, catcalls, and butt slaps: How gender stereotypes and perceived group norms predict sexualized behavior. Sex Roles, 69(11–12), 594–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0320-1
31.
JewellJ.BrownC. S.PerryB. (2015). All my friends are doing it: Potentially offensive sexual behavior perpetration within adolescent social networks. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 25(3), 592–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12150
KimJ. L.Lynn SorsoliC.CollinsK.ZylbergoldB. A.SchoolerD.TolmanD. L. (2007). From sex to sexuality: Exposing the heterosexual script on primetime network television. Journal of Sex Research, 44(2), 145–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490701263660
34.
KirschA. C.MurnenS. K. (2015). “Hot” girls and “cool dudes”: Examining the prevalence of the heterosexual script in American children’s television media. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 4(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000017
35.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
LichtyL. F.CampbellR. (2012). Targets and witnesses: Middle school students’ sexual harassment experiences. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 32(3), 414–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431610396090
38.
MaccobyE. E. (1999). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together (Vol. 4). Harvard University Press.
39.
McMasterL. E.ConnollyJ.PeplerD.CraigW. M. (2002). Peer to peer sexual harassment in early adolescence: A developmental perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 14(1), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579402001050
40.
NishinaA.BellmoreA. (2010). When might peer aggression, victimization, and conflict have its largest impact? Microcontextual considerations. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431609350928
41.
PellegriniA. D. (2001). The roles of dominance and bullying in the development of early heterosexual relationships. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2–3), 63–73. https://doi.org/10.1300/J135v02n02_05
42.
PeplerD. J.CraigW. M.ConnollyJ. A.YuileA.McMasterL.JiangD. (2006). A developmental perspective on bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32(4), 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20136
43.
PetersenJ. L.HydeJ. S. (2009). A longitudinal investigation of peer sexual harassment victimization in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 32(5), 1173–1188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.01.011
44.
PoteatV. P.EspelageD. L. (2007). Predicting psychosocial consequences of homophobic victimization in middle school students. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 27(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431606294839
45.
PoteatV. P.VechoO. (2016). Who intervenes against homophobic behavior? Attributes that distinguish active bystanders. Journal of School Psychology, 54, 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2015.20.002
SalmivalliC.VoetenM.PoskipartaE. (2011). Bystanders matter: Associations between reinforcing, defending, and the frequency of bullying behavior in classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(5), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.597090
48.
ShuteR.OwensL.SleeP. (2008). Everyday victimization of adolescent girls by boys: Sexual harassment, bullying or aggression?Sex Roles, 58(7–8), 477–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9363-5
49.
SmetanaJ. (2006). Social–cognitive domain theory: Consistencies and variations in children’s moral and social judgments. In KillenM.SmetanaJ. G.SmetanaJ. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 119–153). Psychology Press.
50.
StrasburgerV.ZimmermanH.TempleJ.MadiganS. (2019). Teenagers, sexting, and the law. Pediatrics, 143(5), Article e20183183. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3183
TimmermanG. (2003). Sexual harassment of adolescents perpetrated by teachers and by peers: An exploration of the dynamics of power, culture, and gender in secondary schools. Sex Roles, 48(5–6), 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022821320739
53.
TimmermanG. (2005). A comparison between girls’ and boys’ experiences of unwanted sexual behaviour in secondary schools. Educational Research, 47(3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131880500287641
54.
ToomeyR.RyanC.DiazR.CardN.RussellS. (2013). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1, 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/2329-0382.1.S.71
55.
TurielE. (1983). The development of social knowledge: Morality and convention. Cambridge University Press.
56.
U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. (2008.). Sexual harassment: It’s not academic.
57.
WardL. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014068031532
