This article explores the dynamics of diversity and inclusion in the context of boards of directors in the nonprofit sector. Our multimethod study builds on current diversity research by exploring social microprocesses of inclusion in diverse governing groups. We consider functional and social approaches to inclusion within boards, and address the potential for more transformative inclusion. Our findings suggest significant opportunities for meaningful change by shifting focus from diversity to inclusive practices within diverse groups.
AikenL. S.WestS. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
2.
AllisonP. (1991). Multiple regression: A primer. Newbury Pack, CA: Pine Forge Press.
3.
BerthoudH.GreeneR. D. (2001). A multi-faceted look at diversity: Why outreach is not enough. The Journal of Volunteer Administration, 19(2), 2-10.
4.
BlauP. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.
5.
BourneK. (2009). The inclusion breakthrough: Unleashing the real power of diversity. In HarveyC.AllardJ. (Eds.), Understanding and managing diversity (4th ed., pp. 263-270). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
BradshawP.FredetteC. (2013). Determinants of the range of ethno-cultural diversity on nonprofit boards: A study of large Canadian nonprofit organizations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 42, 1111-1133. doi:10.1177/0899764012453085
7.
BradshawP.MurrayV.WolpinJ. (1992). Power in and around nonprofit boards: A neglected dimension of governance. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 3(2), 165-182.
8.
BradshawP.ToubianaM. (2013). Dynamics of nested governance in nonprofit organizations. In CornforthC.BrownW. (Eds.), New perspectives on non-profit governance (pp. 231-248). New York, NY: Routledge.
9.
BrownW. A. (2002). Inclusive governance practices in nonprofit organizations and implications for practice. Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 12, 369-385.
10.
ClarksonM. B. E. (1995). A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 20, 92-117.
11.
CohenP.CohenJ.AikenL. S.WestS. G. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
12.
CornforthC. (2003). The governance of public and non-profit organizations: What do boards do?London, England: Routledge.
13.
CropanzanoR.MitchellM. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: An interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31, 874-900.
14.
DaleyJ. M.AnguloJ. (1994). Understanding the dynamics of diversity within nonprofit boards. Journal of the Community Development Society, 25, 172-188.
15.
DaleyJ. M.MarsigliaF. F. (2001). Social diversity within non-profit boards: Members’ view on status and issues. Journal of the Community Development Society, 32, 290-309.
16.
ElsassP. M.GravesL. M. (1997). Demographic diversity in decision-making groups: The experiences of women and people of color. Academy of Management Review, 22, 946-973.
FieldsM. (2009). Managing diversity: Expert solutions to everyday challenges. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
19.
FondasN.SassalosS. (2000). A different voice in the boardroom: How the presence of women directors affects board influence over management. Global Focus, 12(2), 13-22.
20.
FoxJ. (2011). An R companion to applied regression (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
FreemanR. E.WicksA. C.ParmarB. (2004). Stakeholder theory and “the corporate objective revisited.”Organization Science, 15, 364-369.
23.
GalbreathJ. (2011). Are there gender-related influences on corporate sustainability? A study of women on boards of directors. Journal of Management and Organizations, 17(1), 17-38.
24.
GonzalezJ. A. (2010). Diversity change in organizations: A systemic, multilevel, and nonlinear process. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 46, 197-219.
25.
GoodsteinJ.GautamK.BoekerW. (1994). The effects of board size and diversity of strategic change. Strategic Management Journal, 15, 241-250.
26.
GravesL. M.ElsassP. M. (2005). Sex and sex dissimilarity effects in ongoing teams: Some surprising findings. Human Relations, 58, 191-221.
27.
GreenJ. C.GriesingerD. W. (1996). Board performance and organizational effectiveness in non profit social services organizations. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 6, 381-402.
28.
HarrisonD. A.SinH. P. (2006). What is diversity and how should it be measured? In KonradA. M.PrasadP.PringleJ. K. (Eds.), Handbook of workplace diversity (pp. 191-216). London, England: SAGE.
29.
JacksonS. E.JoshiA.ErhardtN. L. (2003). Recent research on team and organizational diversity: SWOT analysis and implications. Journal of Management, 29, 801-830.
30.
JayneM. E. A.DipboyeR. L. (2004). Leveraging diversity to improve business performance: Research findings and recommendations for organizations. Human Resource Management, 43, 409-424.
31.
JehnK. A.NorthcraftG. B.NealeM. A. (1999). Why differences make a difference: A field study of diversity, conflict and performance in workgroups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 741-763.
32.
JoshiA.RohH. (2009). The role of context in work team diversity research: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 52, 599-627.
33.
KanterR. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books.
34.
KesnerI. F. (1988). Directors’ characteristics and committee membership: An investigation of type, occupation, tenure and gender. Academy of Management Journal, 31, 66-84.
35.
KonradA.KramerV.ErkutS. (2008). Critical mass: The impact of three more women on corporate boards. Organization Dynamics, 37, 145-167.
36.
KvaleS. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
37.
LindE. A.TylerT. R. (1988). The social psychology of procedural justice. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
38.
LitvinD. R. (2006). Diversity: Making space for a better case. In KonradA. M.PrasadP.PringleJ. (Eds.), Handbook of workplace diversity (pp. 75-94). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
39.
MainardesE.RaposoM.AlvesH. (2011). Organizations with dispersed powers: Suggestions of a new management model based on stakeholder theory. Journal of Management Research, 3, 1-31.
40.
MannixE. A.NealeM. A. (2006). What differences make a difference? The promise and reality of diverse teams in organizations. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 6, 32-55.
41.
McClellandG. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Quantitative Methods in Psychology, 114, 376-390.
42.
MerriamS. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
43.
MooreG.WhittJ. A. (2000). Gender and networks in a local voluntary-sector elite. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 11, 309-328.
44.
MowdayR. T.PorterL.SteersR. M. (1982). Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism and turnover. New York, NY: Academic Press.
45.
MowdayR. T.SteersR. M.PorterL. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 224-227.
46.
NkomoS. M.CoxT. H. (1996). Diverse identities in organizations. In CleggS. R.HardyC.NordW. R. (Eds.), Handbook of organizational studies (pp. 338-356). London, England: SAGE.
47.
OstrowerF.StoneM. (2005). Governance: Research trends, gaps and future prospects. In PowellW. W.SteinbergR. (Eds.), The nonprofit sector: A research handbook (pp. 612-628). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
48.
PattonM. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
49.
PelledL. H.EisenhardtK. M.XinK. R. (1999). Exploring the black box: An analysis of work group diversity, conflict, and performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 1-28.
50.
PodsakoffP. M.MacKenzieS. B.LeeJ.-Y.PodsakoffN. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903.
51.
RobersonQ. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in organizations. Group and Organization Management, 31, 212-236.
52.
SchinkaJ. A.VelicerW. F.WeinerI. B. (2003). Research methods in psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
53.
ShoreL. M.RandelA. E.ChungB. G.DeanM. A.EhrhartK. H.SinghG. (2011). Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37, 1262-1289.
54.
SicilianoJ. I. (1996). The relationship of board member diversity to organizational performance. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, 1313-1320.
55.
SmithK. G.SmithK. A.OlianJ. D.SimsH. P.O’BannonD. P.ScullyJ. A. (1994). Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 412-438.
StevensF. G.PlautV. C.Sanchez-BurksJ. (2008). Unlocking the benefits of diversity: All-inclusive multiculturalism and positive organizational change. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 44, 116-133.
58.
StraussA.CorbinJ. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
59.
Van KnippenbergD.WestM. A.DawsonJ. F.HomanA. C. (2010). Diversity faultlines, shared objectives, and top management team performance. Human Relations, 64, 307-336.
60.
WestphalJ.IthaiS. (2006). The other pathway to the boardroom: How interpersonal influence behavior can substitute for elite credentials and demographic majority status in gaining access to board appointments. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51, 169-204.
61.
YangY.KonradA. M. (2011). Understanding diversity management practices: Implications of institutional theory and resource based theory. Group & Organization Management, 36, 6-38.