Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

The study of philanthropy has largely been the purview of the wealthy and privileged in Western societies. However, the act of giving transcends race, religion, nationality, ethnicity, and socioeconomic conditions. This article adds to the philanthropic literature by providing empirical evidence of the prosocial behaviors of rural villagers throughout India. Using responses from a large-scale, door-to-door survey (n=3,159), we found that high percentages of rural Indians regularly engage in both formal and informal giving and volunteering. Even among generally poor, rural Indian villagers, socioeconomic indicators still matter (with the exception of education), and minority religions and lower social groups tend to exhibit higher levels of prosocial behavior than dominant religious and social groups.

Keywords

prosocial behavior philanthropy India informal giving informal volunteering

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agarwal

(2010). Daan and other giving traditions in India: The forgotten pot of gold. AccountAid.

Allen

(2018). The science of generosity. Templeton Foundation. https://ggsc.berkeley.edu/images/uploads/GGSC-JTF_White_Paper-Generosity-FINAL.pdf

Andreoni

(2006). Philanthropy. In Kolm

S. C.

Ythier

J. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of the economics of giving, altruism and reciprocity (Vol. 2, pp. 1201–1269). Elsevier.

Apinunmahakul

Barham

Devlin

R. E.

(2009). Charitable giving, volunteering, and the paid labor market. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 31(1), 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764008315845

Arnjad

Ali

(2018, March 19). Philanthropy in Pakistan. Stanford Social Innovation Review. https://ssir.org/articles/entry/philanthropy_in_pakistan?platform=hootsuite

Auten

G. E.

Clotfelter

C. T.

Schmalbeck

R. L.

(2000). Taxes and philanthropy among the wealthy. In Slemrod

(Ed.), Does atlas shrug? The economic consequences of taxing the rich (pp. 392–424). Harvard University Press.

S. (2016). In-kind giving. In Scaife

McGregor-Lowndes

Barraket

Burns

(Eds.), Giving Australia 2016: Literature review summary report (pp. 48–52). The Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies. https://www.communitybusinesspartnership.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/giving_australia_2016_literature_review_summary.pdf#page=66

Bekkers

(2010). Who gives what and when? A scenario study of intentions to give time and money. Social Science Research, 39, 369–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.08.008

Bekkers

Wiepking

(2011). A literature review of empirical studies of philanthropy: Eight mechanisms that drive charitable giving. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(5), 924–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010380927

10.

Bekkers

Wiepking

de Wit

Zarins

(2020). Revolutionizing philanthropy research [Working paper]. https://osf.io/spq5d/download

11.

Benenson

Stagg

(2016). An asset-based approach to volunteering: Exploring benefits for low-income volunteers. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45(1), 131S–149S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764015604739

12.

Bennett

M. R.

Einolf

C. J.

(2017). Religion, altruism, and helping strangers: A multilevel analysis of 126 countries. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 56(2), 323–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12328

13.

Bennett

(2011). Why urban poor donate: A study of low-income charitable giving in London. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Review, 41(5), 870–891. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764011419518

14.

Bhattacharya

(2016). The politics of participation: Dis-citizenship through English teaching in a suburban Indian village school. English as an International Language Journal, 11(1), 71–85.

15.

Boddie

S. C.

(2004). The social services of African-American congregations in the welfare reform era. African American Research Perspectives, 10(1), 36–43.

16.

Brooks

A. C.

(2006). Who really cares: The surprising truth about compassionate conservatism. Basic Books.

17.

Burns

Picken

Hacker

Aked

Turner

Lewis

(2015). The role of volunteering in sustainable development. https://www.vsointernational.org/sites/default/files/the_role_of_volunteering_in_sustainable_development_2015_vso_ids.pdf

18.

Bussell

(2018, July 24). Funding elections in India: Whose money has the most influence? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/07/24/funding-elections-in-india-whose-money-has-most-influence-pub-76906

19.

Butcher

Sordo

(2016). Giving Mexico: Giving by individuals. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 27, 322–347. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-015-9613-z

20.

Campbell

Çarkoğlu

(2019). Informal giving in Turkey. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30, 738–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-019-00095-7

21.

Cantegreil

Chanana

Kattumuri

(2013). Revealing Indian philanthropy. Alliance Publishing Trust.

22.

Census of India. (n.d.). Census of India 2011: Final population totals. https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/censusinfodashboard/index.html

23.

Charities Aid Foundation. (2021). CAF World Giving Index 2021: A global view of giving trends. https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-research/cafworldgivingindex2021_report_web2_100621.pdf

24.

Choi

N. G.

Burr

J. A.

Mutchler

J. E.

Caro

F. G.

(2007). Formal and informal volunteer activity and spousal caregiving among older adults. Research on Aging, 29, 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027506296759

25.

Clarke

(2018, August 8). Global South: What does it mean and why use the term? Global South Political Economies. University of Victoria. https://onlineacademiccommunity.uvic.ca/globalsouthpolitics/2018/08/08/global-south-what-does-it-mean-and-why-use-the-term/

26.

Clotfelter

C. T.

Steuerle

C. E.

(1981). Charitable contributions. In Aaron

Pechman

(Eds.), How taxes affect economic behavior (pp. 403–437). Brookings Institution.

27.

Cnaan

R. A.

Scott

M. L.

Heist

H. D.

Moodithaya

M. S.

(forthcoming). Financial inclusion in the digital banking age: Lessons from rural India. Journal of Social Policy.

28.

Cnaan

R. A.

Handy

Wadsworth

(1996). Defining who is a volunteer: Conceptual and empirical considerations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25(3), 364–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764096253006

29.

Cnaan

R. A.

Park

(2015). The multifaceted nature of civic participation: A literature review. Voluntaristics Review: Brill Research Perspectives, 1(1), 1–71. https://doi.org/10.1163/24054933-12340001

30.

Corbridge

(2000). Competing inequalities: The scheduled tribes and the reservations system in India’s Jharkhand. The Journal of Asian Studies, 59(1), 62–85. https://doi.org/10.2307/2658584

31.

Deshpande

(2005). Affirmative action in India and the United States (License: CC BY 3.0 IGO). World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9038

32.

Deshpande

Spears

(2016). Who is the identifiable victim? Caste and charitable giving in modern India. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 64(2), 299–321.

33.

Einolf

(2017). Cross-national differences in charitable giving in the West and the World. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 28, 472–491.

34.

Einolf

Proutreau

Nezhina

Ibrayeva

(2016). Informal, unorganized volunteering. In Smith

D. H.

Stebbins

R. A.

Grotz

(Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of volunteering, civic participation, and nonprofit associations (pp. 223–241). Palgrave Macmillan.

35.

Everatt

Habib

Maharaj

Nyar

(2005). Patterns of giving in South Africa. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 16, 275–291. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-005-7725-z

36.

Forbes

K. F.

Zampelli

E. M.

(2014). Volunteerism: The influences of social, religious, and human capital. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 43(2), 227–253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764012458542

37.

Fowler

Mati

J. M.

(2019). African gifting: Pluralising the concept of philanthropy. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 30, 724–737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-018-00079-z

38.

Gesthuizen

Scheepers

(2012). Educational differences in volunteering in cross-national perspective: Individual and contextual explanations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 41(1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010394203

39.

Government of India. (2020). 2001 census data: Religion. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. https://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/religion.aspx

40.

Grimm

R. T.

Dietz

(2018). Where are America’s volunteers? A look at America’s widespread decline in volunteering in cities and states. University of Maryland, Do Good Institute. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/25229/Where%20Are%20Americas%20Volunteers_Research%20Brief%20_Nov%202018.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

41.

Hacker

Picken

Lewis

(2017). Perceptions of volunteering and their effect on sustainable development and poverty alleviation in Mozambique, Nepal and Kenya. In Butcher

Einolf

C. J.

(Eds.), Perspectives on volunteering: Voices from the South (pp. 53–73). Springer.

42.

Hackl

Halla

Pruckner

G. J.

(2007). Volunteering and income: The fallacy of the Good Samaritan? Kyklos: International Review of Social Sciences, 60, 70–104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2007.00360.x

43.

Handy

Moodithaya

M. S.

Cnaan

R. A.

(2009). Understanding volunteer leaders of microcredit self-help groups in Karnataka, India. Social Development Issues, 32(2), 15–29.

44.

Helms

McKenzie

(2014). Gender differences in formal and informal volunteering in Germany. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 25, 887–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-013-9378-1

45.

Hughes

(2017, May 17). 5 facts about U.S. political donations. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/17/5-facts-about-u-s-political-donations/

46.

Hustinx

Cnaan

R. A.

Handy

(2010). Navigating theories of volunteering: A hybrid map for a complex phenomenon. The Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 40(4), 410–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.2010.00439.x

47.

Iannaccone

(1988). A formal model of church and sect. American Journal of Sociology, 94(Suppl.), S241–S268. https://doi.org/10.1086/228948

48.

James

R. N.

Sharpe

D. L.

(2007). The nature and causes of the U-shaped charitable giving profile. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 36(2), 218–238.

49.

Jacobs

Xaba

(2011). Women in urban and peri-agriculture: Sustaining livelihoods in the Cape Metropolitan Area. Agenda, 22, 186–197.

50.

Jones

J. M.

(2020, May 14). Percentage of Americans donating to charity at new low. Gallup, Economy. https://news.gallup.com/poll/310880/percentage-americans-donating-charity-new-low.aspx

51.

Kassam

Handy

Jansons

(2016). Philanthropy in India: Promise to practice. SAGE.

52.

Lahiri

R. K.

(2021). Caste system in Hinduism: The historical background. https://www.boloji.com/articles/1211/caste-system-in-hinduism

53.

Lewis

(2015). Learning from communities: The local dynamics of formal and informal volunteering in Korogocho, Kenya. IDS Bulletin, 46(5), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-5436.12176

54.

Musick

M. A.

Wilson

(2008). Volunteers: A social profile. Indiana University Press.

55.

Nesteruk

Price

C. A.

(2011). Retired women and volunteering: The good, the bad, and the unrecognized. Journal of Women & Aging, 23(2), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2011.561138

56.

Osella

Stirrat

Widger

(2015). Charity, philanthropy, and development in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In Behrooz

(Ed.), New philanthropy and social justice: Debating the conceptual and policy discourse (pp. 137–156). Policy Press.

57.

Penner

L. A.

Dovidio

J. F.

Piliavin

J. A.

Schroeder

D. A.

(2005). Prosocial behaviour: Multilevel perspectives. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 365–392. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070141

58.

Perold

Graham

(2014). Volunteering, civic service and civil society in Africa. In Obadare

T. E.

(Ed.), The handbook of civil society in Africa (pp. 439–456). Springer.

59.

Pharoah

Tanner

(1997). Trends in charity giving. Fiscal Studies, 18, 427–443. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1997.tb00272

60.

Piatak

Dietz

McKeever

(2019). Bridging or deepening the digital divide: Influence of household internet access on formal and informal volunteering. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 48(Suppl. 2), 123S–150S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764018794907

61.

Piff

Kraus

Cote

Cheng

Keltner

(2010). Having less, giving more: The influence of social class on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Prosocial Behavior, 99, 771–784. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020092

62.

Prachi

(2018). Women empowerment and self-help groups in India. Asian Journal of Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, 8(5), 15–20. https://doi.org/10.5958/2249-7315.2018.00076.X

63.

Putnam

R. D.

(2015). Our kids: The American dream in crisis. Simon & Schuster.

64.

Putnam

R. D.

Campbell

D. E.

(2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. Simon & Schuster.

65.

Ritter

Solt

(2019). Economic inequality and campaign participation. Social Science Quarterly, 100(3), 678–688. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12605

66.

Sen

Chatterjee

R. S.

Nayak

N. C.

Mahakud

(2020). Determinants of individual giving behavior in urban India. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 31, 271–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-017-9913-6

67.

Schervish

P. G.

Havens

J. J.

(1995). Do the poor pay more: Is the U-shaped curve correct? Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 24(1), 79–90.

68.

Sheth

Ayilavarapu

Bhagwati

(2015). India philanthropy report 2015. Bain & Company. http://www.bain.com/publications/articles/india-philanthropy-report-2015.aspx

69.

Sibley

C. G.

Bulbulia

(2014). Charity explains differences in life satisfaction between religious and secular New Zealanders. Religion, Brain, & Behavior, 5(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2014.899509

70.

Smith

Shue

Vest

J. L.

Villarreal

(1999). Philanthropy in communities of color. Indiana University Press.

71.

Smith

D. H.

(1994). Determinants of voluntary association participation and volunteering: A literature review. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 23(3), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/089976409402300305

72.

Smith

D. H.

Wang

(2016). Conducive social roles and demographics influencing volunteering. In Smith

D. H.

Stebbins

R. A.

Grotz

(Eds.), Palgrave handbook of volunteering civic participation and nonprofit associations (pp. 632–681). Palgrave Macmillan.

73.

Smith

M. B.

Laurie

Griffiths

(2017). South–South volunteering and development. The Geographical Journal, 184(2), 158–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12243

74.

Taniguchi

(2006). Men’s and women’s volunteering: Gender differences in the effects of employment and family characteristics. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 35(1), 83–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764005282481

75.

Tönnies

(1957). Community and society ( Loomis

C. P.

, Trans. & Ed.). Michigan State University Press. (Original work published 1887)

76.

United Nations Volunteers. (2018). The thread that binds: Volunteerism and community resilience. United Nations. http://unv-swvr2018.org/

77.

Vaishnav

Hintson

(2019). The dawn of India’s fourth party system. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/files/201909-VaishnavHintson.pdf

78.

Van Slyke

D. M.

Brooks

A. C

. (2005). Why do people give? New evidence and strategies for nonprofit managers. American Review of Public Administration, 35(3), 199–222.

79.

Walker

Pharoah

(2002). A lot to give: Trends in charitable giving for the 21st century. Hodder and Stoughton.

80.

Warburton

McLaughlin

(2007). Passing on our culture: How older Australians from diverse cultural backgrounds contribute to civil society. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 22(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-006-9012-4

81.

Wiepking

Bekkers

(2012). Who gives? A literature review of predictors of charitable giving. Part two: Gender, family composition and income. Voluntary Sector Review, 3(2), 217–245. https://doi.org/10.1332/204080512X649379

82.

Wike

Castillo

(2018, October 17). Many around the world are disengaged from politics. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2018/10/17/international-political-engagement/

83.

Wilkinson-Maposa

Fowler

Oliver-Evans

Mulenga

C. F. N.

(2005). The poor philanthropist: How and why the poor help each other. UCT Graduate School of Business. http://www.thepoorphilanthropist.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/the_poor_philanthropist.pdf

84.

Wilson

(2012). Volunteerism research: A review essay. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 41(2), 176–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764011434558

85.

Wilson

Musick

(1997). Who cares? Toward an integrated theory of volunteer work. American Sociological Review, 62, 694–713.

86.

World Population Review. (2020). India Population 2020, World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/india-population

87.

Ysseldyk

Talebi

Matheson

Bloemraad

Anisman

(2014). Religious and ethnic discrimination: Differential implications for social support engagement, civic involvement, and political consciousness. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 2(1), 347–375. https://doi.org/10.5964/jspp.v2i1.232