Implicit measurement using latencies is proposed as a complement to conventional measurement to assess organizational constructs (e.g., job satisfaction), to assist in personnel decisions (e.g., selection), and to assess outcomes (e.g., diversity training). Latency-based measurements (i.e., the Implicit Association Test) use categorization tasks to measure attitudes, stereotypes, and self-concepts. Its routine inclusion in organizational research can address measurement limitations, enrich theoretical understanding of organizational phenomena, and inform practice by better predicting behavior.
Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2.
Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mucke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,83, 380-393.
3.
Balzer, W. K., Smith, P. C., Kravitz, D. A., Lovell, S. E., Paul, K. B., Reilly, B. A., et al. (1990). User’s manual for the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Job in General (JIG) scales. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University.
4.
Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.),Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-61). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
5.
Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,62, 893-912.
6.
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist,54, 462-479.
7.
Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001). Implicit attitudes toward homosexuality: Reliability, validity, and controllability of the IAT. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie,48(11), 45-60.
8.
Baumeister, R. F., Dale, K., & Sommer, K. L. (1998). Freudian defense mechanism and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation and denial. Journal of Personality,66, 1081-1124.
9.
Blair, I. V., Ma, J. E., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 828-841.
10.
Bornstein, R. F. (2002). A process dissociation approach to objective-projective test score interrelationships. Journal of Personality Assessment,78, 47-68.
11.
Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., Jr., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit selfesteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79, 631-643.
12.
Brendl, C. M, Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2001) How do indirect measures of evaluation work? Evaluating the inference of prejudice in the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 760-773.
13.
Brunel, F. F., Tietje, B. C., & Greenwald, A. G. (2004). Is the Implicit Association Test a valid and valuable measure of implicit consumer social cognition. Journal of Consumer Psychology,14, 385–404.
14.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Psychological Bulletin,56, 81-105.
15.
Cellar, D. F., Miller, M. L., Doverspike, D. D., & Klawsky, J. D. (1996). Comparison of factor structures and criterion-related validity coefficients for two measures of personality based on the five-factor model. Journal of Applied Psychology,81, 694-704.
16.
Chaiken, S., & Trope, Y. (1999). Dual-process theories in social psychology.New York: Guilford.
17.
Cramer, P. (2000). Defense mechanisms in psychology today: Further processes for adaptation. American Psychologist,55, 637-646.
18.
Cranny, C., Smith, P., & Stone, E. (Eds.). (1992). Job satisfaction: How people feel about their jobs and how it affects their performance. New York: Lexington Books.
19.
Crowne, D. P., & Marlow, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology,24, 349-354.
20.
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency reliability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science,12, 163-170.
21.
Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). Exposure to admired group members reduces automatic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 800-814.
22.
Dasgupta, N., McGhee, D. E., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Automatic preference for White Americans: Eliminating the familiarity explanation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 316-328.
23.
De Houwer, J. (2003). The Extrinsic Affective Simon Task. Experimental Psychology,50, 77-85.
24.
Devine, P. G. (2001). Implicit prejudice and stereotyping: How automatic are they? Introduction to the special section. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 757-759.
25.
Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82, 835-848.
26.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,82, 62-68.
27.
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,33, 510-540.
28.
Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2002). Predictive validity of an implicit association test for assessing anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,83, 1441-1455.
29.
Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Neubauer, D. H., Mauss, I. B., & Gross, J. J. (2002). Implicit anxiety measure predicts cardiovascular reactivity to an evaluated speaking task. Emotion,2, 3-11.
30.
Ellingson, J. E., Smith, D. B., & Sackett, P. R. (2001). Investigating the influence of social desirability on personality factor structure. Journal of Applied Psychology,86, 122-133.
31.
Farnham, S. D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. (1999). Implicit self-esteem: Using the implicit association test. In D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.),Social identity and cognition (pp. 230-248). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
32.
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C. & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
33.
Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,50, 229-238.
34.
Fazio, R. H., & Towles-Schwen, T. (1999). The MODE model of attitude-behavior processes. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.),Dual process theories in social psychology(pp. 97-116). New York: Guilford.
35.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
36.
Gaertner, S. L., & McLaughlin, J. P. (1983). Racial stereotypes: Associations and ascriptions of positive and negative characteristics. Social Psychology Quarterly,46, 23-30.
37.
Garb, H. N., Wood, J. M., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Nezworski, M. T. (2002). Effective use of projective techniques in clinical practice: Let the data help with selection and interpretation. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice,33, 454-463.
38.
Geiser, L., & Stein, M. I. (1999). Evocative images: The Thematic Apperception Test and the art of projection. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
39.
Greenwald, A. G. (2001, October). What’s wrong with the IAT? Paper presented at the meeting of the Society of Experimental Social Psychology, Spokane, WA.
40.
Greenwald, A. G. (2004, January). Revised top 10 list of things wrong with the IAT. Paper presented at the Attitudes Preconference of the fifth annual meeting of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, Austin, TX.
41.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review,102, 4-27.
42.
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A.Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
43.
Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,79, 1022-1038.
44.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,74, 1464-1480.
45.
Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2001). Health of the Implicit Association Test at age 3. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie,48(11), 85-93.
46.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,85, 197-216.
47.
Grove, W. M., Barden, R. C., Garb, H. N., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2002). Failure of Rorschach-comprehensivesystem-based testimony to be admissible under the Daubert-Joiner-Kumho standard. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law,8, 216-234.
48.
Haines, E. L., & Kray, L. (2005). Self-power associations: The possession of power impact women’s self-concepts. European Journal of Social Psychology,35, 643-662.
49.
Haines, E. L., & Sumner, K. E. (2003, April). Using Implicit Attitude Measurement in industrial organizational psychology: Research and practice. Master tutorial, Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL.
50.
Haines, E. L., & Sumner, K. (2004, April). The what, why, and how of implicit measurement: A primer. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology, Chicago.
51.
Hogan, J., & Holland, B. (2003). Using theory to evaluate personality and job-performance relations: A socioanalytic perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology,88, 100-112.
52.
Hunsley, J., & Bailey, J. M. (1999). The clinical utility of the Rorschach: Unfulfilled promises and an uncertain future. Psychological Assessment,11, 266-277.
53.
Ingerick, M., Dudley, N. M., Cortina, J. M., Orvis, K. A., Lev-Arey Margalit, D., & Baughman, K. (2002, April). Integrating implicit cognitions into theories of job performance: Issues of convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Paper presented at the 17th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Toronto, Canada.
54.
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin,127, 376-407.
55.
Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 774-788.
56.
Kawakami, K., Dion, K. L., & Dovidio, J. (1998). Racial prejudice and stereotype activation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,24, 407-416.
57.
Kim, D. Y., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998, May). Voluntary controllability of implicit cognition: Can implicit attitudes be faked? Paper presented at the meetings of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
58.
Locke, E. A. (1970). Job satisfaction and job performance: A theoretical analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,5, 484-500.
59.
Maison, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Bruin, R. (2001). The Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit consumer attitudes. Polish Psychological Bulletin,32(1), 61-69.
60.
Marsh, K. L., Johnson, B. L., & Scott-Sheldon, L. (2001). Heart versus reason in condom use: Implicit versus explicit attitudinal predictors of sexual behavior. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie,48, 161-175.
61.
McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ?Psychological Review,96, 690-702.
62.
McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,37, 435-442.
63.
Mueller-Hanson, R., Heggestad, E. D., & Thornton, G. C., III. (2003). Faking and selection: Considering the use of personality from select-in and select-out perspectives. Journal of Applied Psychology,88, 348-355.
64.
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review,84, 231-259.
65.
Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,134, 565-584.
66.
Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The go/no-go association task. Social Cognition,19(6), 161-176.
67.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration Website. Group Dynamics,6(1), 101-115.
68.
Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L. (2005). A multitrait-multimethod validation of the Implicit Association Test: Implicit and explicit attitudes are related but distinct constructs. Unpublished manuscript.
69.
Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extra-personal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,86, 653-667.
70.
Orne, M. T. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment: With particular reference to demand characteristics and their implications. American Psychologist,17, 776–783.
71.
Phelps, E. A., O’Connor, K., Cunningham, W., Funayama, E., Gatenby, J., Gore, J., et al. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,12,729-738.
72.
Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology,59, 603-609.
73.
Reiman, A. S., Bel-Bahar, T. S., & Harbke, C. R. (2003). Implicit personality structure test: Reliability and validity of response latency measurement. Retrieved June 29, 2003, from http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/programs/documents/
74.
Rosenberg, M. J. (1969). The conditions and consequences of evaluation apprehension. In R. Rosenthal & R. L. Rosnow (Eds.),Artifact and behavioral research(pp. 279-349). New York: Academic Press.
75.
Rosse, J. G., Stecher, M. D., Miller, J. L., & Levin, R. A. (1998). The impact of response distortion on preemployment personality testing and hiring decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology,83, 634-644.
76.
Rudman, L. A., Ashmore, R. D., & Gary, M. L. (2001). “Unlearning” automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 856-868.
77.
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues,57, 743-762.
78.
Rudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., Mellott, D. S., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition,17(4), 1-29.
79.
Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,26, 1315-1328.
80.
Ryan, A. M., Ployhart, R. E., & Friedel, L. A. (1998). Using personality testing to reduce adverse impact: A cautionary note. Journal of Applied Psychology,83, 298-307.
81.
Sackett, P. R., Gruys, M. L., & Ellingson, J. E. (1998). Ability-personality interactions when predicting job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology,83, 545-556.
82.
Schmit, M. J., & Ryan, A. M. (1993). The Big Five in personnel selection: Factor structure in applicant and nonapplicant populations. Journal of Applied Psychology,78, 552-566.
83.
Smith, D. B., Hanges, P. J., & Dickson, M. W. (2001). Personnel selection and the five factor model: Reexamining the effects of applicant’s frame of reference. Journal of Applied Psychology,86, 304-315.
84.
Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement: A strategy for the study of attitudes. Chicago: Rand McNally.
85.
Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,30, 526-537.
86.
Stark, S., Chernyshenko, O. S., Chan, K., Lee, W. C., & Drasgow, F. (2001). Effects of the testing situation on item responding: Cause for concern. Journal of Applied Psychology,86, 943-953.
87.
Steffens, M. C., & Plewe, I. (2001). Items’ cross-category associations as a confounding factor in the Implicit Association Test. Zeitschrift für experimentelle Psychologie,48, 123-134.
88.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology,28, 643-662.
89.
Sumner, K. & Haines, E. L. (2004, April). Implicit measurement in I-O psychology: Empirical realities and theoretical possibilities. Symposium, Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology, Chicago.
90.
Teachman, B. A., Gapinski, K. D., Brownell, K. D., Rawlins, M., & Jeyaram, S. (2003). Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy. Health Psychology, 22, 68-78.
91.
Teachman, B. A., Gregg, A. P., & Woody, S. R. (2001). Implicit associations for fear-relevant stimuli among individuals with snake and spider fears. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,110, 226-235.
92.
Teachman, B. A., & Woody, S. R. (2003). Automatic processing in spider phobia: Implicit fear associations over the course of treatment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,112, 100-109.
93.
Tedeschi, J. T., Schlenker, B. R., & Bonoma, T. V. (1971). Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination or public spectacle?American Psychologist,26, 685-695.
94.
Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire: Minnesota studies in vocational rehabilitation. Minneapolis: Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota.
95.
Westen, D. (1998). The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science. Psychological Bulletin,124, 333-371.
96.
Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review,107, 101-126.
97.
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,81, 815-827.
98.
Ziegert, J. C., & Hanges, P. J. (2005). Employment discrimination: The role of implicit attitudes, motivation, and a climate for bias. Journal of Applied Psychology,90, 553-562.
