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Abstract

This study used narrative inquiry to observe the occurrence and nature of transformative learning in a management development programme. The methodology of using participant narratives comes with several challenges for the researcher to remain true to the expressed story. Thus, by adding another step in moving from narrative analysis to the analysis of narratives, this paper provides a novel perspective on qualitative research of this nature. The application of McCormack’s four lenses of process, context, moments and language provided additional insight into understanding the participants’ lived experience of transformative learning. The use of thematic maps and thematic networks were also incorporated to create visual representations of the themes, and to keep the story intact. These too are unfamiliar in most versions of narrative analysis.

Keywords

narrative inquiry interpretative stories narrative analysis analysis of narratives thematic maps thematic networks

Introduction

In this qualitative research on transformative learning, a narrative inquiry is an ideal approach, as it credits the participant’s lived experience as a body of knowledge and understanding (Calabria & Bailey, 2023). A narrative inquiry approach makes known the participant’s experiences, interpretation and priorities which can be told in a story format (Clandinin, 2022). “We are the storytelling species. Storytelling is in our blood. We think in story form, speak in story form, and bring meaning to our lives through story” (Atkinson, cited in Clandinin, 2007, p. 224). Despite a growing body of work on narrative inquiry, there is limited guidance on how to design a step-by-step narrative inquiry approach.

True narrative inquiry should include the “how and why a particular event is storied” with the details and context coming to the forefront (Riessman, 2008, p. 12–13). This depth can prompt the researcher to grow and think beyond the transcript (Riessman, 2008) and even to think visually (Angell et al., 2015). Drawings remain an under-reported research method and have infrequently been used to explore individual learning experiences in management development (Han & Liang, 2015; Kuzle, 2023; Mannay, 2015).

The purpose of this research was to determine if and how transformative learning took place during a management development programme. Management development research includes context and immense complexities (Berliner, 2002), as it is an “analytical practice that focuses on the process required to produce a valid explanation of educational phenomena” (Bulterman-Bos, 2008, p. 413). Educational experiences, including management development experiences, ought to be studied narratively (Clandinin & Rosiek, 2019), as participants are storytelling beings who lead storied lives both individually and socially.

Methodology: Narrative Inquiry and McCormack’s Lenses

A narrative inquiry studies an individual’s experience in the world and seeks ways of inspiring and transforming that experience for themselves and others (Clandinin & Rosiek, 2019). Narrative inquiry explores specific experiences and is a way to understand and make sense of what took place (Finn & Brown, 2024). A narrative inquiry approach concentrates on stories told by participants, which reveal their experiences, interpretation and priorities (Clandinin, 2022). The heart of narrative inquiry is a “constellation of stories” (Craig, 2007) that includes a rich description of events (Clandinin, 2022). Polkinghorne (2007) writes that narrative inquiry validates how people understand others and themselves. It is through narratives that the world is regarded and understood (Wortham, 2001). Narrative inquiry makes known the meaning of participants’ experiences, rather than sharing objective truths (Bailey & Tilley, 2002). Bruner (2002) holds the view that, through narrative inquiry, yesterday and tomorrow are reinvented through memory and imagination. This implies that the past, present and future are an important consideration for this present paper, which makes McCormack’s (2004) lenses the ideal approach to apply to the analysis of data.

Gathering Data: Narrative Analysis

Analysis is considered the ‘heartbeat’ of research (Henning et al., 2004) but is one of the most challenging aspects of working with qualitative data. Coffey and Atkinson (1996, p. 10) wrote:

Analysis is not about adhering to any one correct approach or set of right techniques; it is imaginative, artful, and flexible. It should also be methodical, scholarly and intellectually rigorous.

The main data-gathering method set out in this paper was an adapted draw-write-tell method (Angell et al., 2015) whereby hand-drawn images and an in-depth interview were used to gather data. This data was then used to produce an interpretive story per participant which was written using McCormack’s four lenses. As part of the draw-write component of the method, hand-drawn images were used to help illustrate ideas and emotions in a more tangible and specific way than words (Han & Liang, 2015). Figure 1 is an example of a hand-drawn image.

Figure 1.

Example of a Hand-Drawn Image

Drawing, while mainly used with children in research, allows adult participants to express their thoughts and feelings that are often difficult to articulate (Blodgett et al., 2013). English is not always the first language of participants in the context of this paper in these management development programmes, and non-English speakers have valuable experiences that they can share but not always articulate with ease (Perry, 2011). Consequently, the introduction of hand-drawn images can overcome the language barrier some participants may have in expressing their thoughts while in an in-depth interview. In addition, Mezirow (2001) recognises that transformation could be difficult to express or assess. To enable the articulation of the experience, the participants completed the drawings before the in-depth interview, giving the participants the time and lexicon to explain their experiences during the in-depth interview.

A drawing method is best used in conjunction with other research methods, such as in-depth interviews (Han & Liang, 2015). In this study, the in-depth interviews were considered the ‘tell’ component of the draw-write-tell method (Angell et al., 2015). The in-depth interview provided an opportunity to explore the learning experience in detail and address other ideas not included in the hand-drawn images. The research design included an in-depth interview guide which included semi-structured, open-ended questions guided by Hoggan’s (2016) typology of transformative learning (which included breadth, relative stability and depth of learning) to elicit views and opinions from participants.

Context of the Study

This study explored how and to what extent transformative learning occurred within a management development programme. In this case, participants shared how they experienced a change in their perception and construction of meaning through a learning experience (Mezirow, 2001). The study was bounded in a management development programme (MDP) which was run by a higher education institution over a period of 12 months. The MDP aim was to develop and enhance senior management leadership capabilities. The value of introducing transformative learning theory in management development is still in its infancy (Kuechler & Stedham, 2018).

As transformative learning is often difficult to recognise, Hoggan’s (2016) definition and parameters were applied to the analysis of the experience. Hoggan (2016, p.71) saw transformative learning as specific “processes that result in significant and irreversible changes in the way a person experiences, conceptualises and interacts with the world”, with parameters that included breadth, depth and relative stability. Since the participants in the MDP were storytelling organisms (both individually and socially), the result of the observation was the creation of an emerging analysis framework to foster individual transformative learning (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; Robertson et al., 2021).

Observing the Participants

A total of nine participants was regarded as satisfactory to pilot the research method. Subsequently, in the final sample, out of 100 possible participants 16 volunteered to be part of this study, whereby they were engaged in a draw-write-tell method. Each participant completed their drawings once, which served as a visual representation of their thoughts and insights. The participants were encouraged to create their drawings one month before and these drawings were completed prior to the in-depth interviews, allowing participants to reflect on their learning experiences before discussing them in detail. The combination of the drawings and the semi-structured, open-ended questions from the interview guide, based on Hoggan’s (2016) typology of transformative learning, provided a comprehensive approach to exploring the participants’ views and opinions, ensuring that both visual and verbal narratives contributed to a richer understanding of their transformative learning experiences. The hand-drawn images and the interview answers were then translated verbatim into a transcript.

To be faced with pages and pages of transcripts can be an intimidating experience for a researcher, which is why it is at this stage that the researcher applied McCormack’s four lenses. It was important not to force categories or codes on interview transcripts, as this loses the individual experience of transformation and separates a participant’s words from their spoken and heard contexts (McCormack, 2000a). McCormack's (2004, p.219) approach was chosen as it highlights “both the individuality and the complexity of life.” Narrative inquiry requires an active role of the researcher in creating stories (Reissman, 2008). The researcher wrote interpretive stories using McCormack’s (2000a) approach called “storying stories”, which is summarised in Table 1. McCormack (2000a; 2000b) includes four lenses in the ‘storying stories’ as part of narrative analysis; these include process, context, language and moments. Each lens had a distinct way of examining the information in the transcript and this contributed to the understanding of the participant’s experience (Dibley, 2011).

Table 1.

Narrative Analysis Procedure Called “Storying Stories” (Adapted From McCormack, 2004)

Steps	Description
1. Immersion in transcript	Process lens: Active listening (McCormack, 2000a). Applying McCormack’s lenses as an analytical framework involved multiple ‘listenings’ of recordings of the interview transcript (Dibley, 2011)
2. Scan for markers	Process lens: Each transcript scanned for markers using six features summarised as: Abstract: An initial clause that summarised the order of events, how the story began, the point of the story; Orientation clauses: Time, place and events of the story; completing action clauses: Main parts of the story, including the answer to “what happened then?”; Result/Resolution: What finally happened; Evaluation: Explanation of the meaning of the event, why the story was told; and Coda: Links to the present (Grbich, 2007)
3. Identification, selection and ordering of story titles	Process lens: Potential story titles taken from the transcript (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b). The main story title summarised the reason for telling the story and sometimes included the direct words of the participant
4. Narrative process, context, moments and language lenses noted	Narrative process
	Context lens: The lenses of context where the text was produced (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)
	Moments lens: Where something unexpected happened (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)
	Language lens: Analyse the language (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)
5. Write the interpretive story	Writing of the interpretive stories using the views highlighted through McCormack’s (2000a; 2000b) four lenses
6. Reread the transcripts	Reread the transcripts to see if there were any additional events (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)
7. Peer reviewer	Transcripts and the interpretive stories were discussed with a peer reviewer (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)
8. Member check	Participant-checking: Each story is returned to the participant for comment and feedback (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b)

Step four, the lenses of narrative process, context, moments and language, in Table 1 was what made McCormack’s lenses stand out in terms of an analysis approach, as it provided the foundation for the interpretive story and requires further explanation.

The lens of narrative process is a crucial lens in understanding how participants construct their stories (Rooney & Whitton, 2016). Participants often organise their narratives with a clear beginning, middle, and end. In other words, a participant may start with a significant event that triggered their learning, followed by a series of challenges they faced, and conclude with the insights gained. This structure helps frame the narrative and guides the audience through the emotional journey (McCormack, 2000a; 2000b). The use of vivid imagery and symbolism is prominent in participants’ narratives. In this study, participants described their experience of overcoming obstacles as climbing a mountain, using this metaphor to convey the struggle and triumph associated with their learning. Such imagery enriches the narrative and provides deeper emotional resonance.

The lens of context addressed the situational context of the participant (Rooney & Whitton, 2016). On the one hand, context is important in interpreting the findings as it allows for an audit trail and replication of the research (Patrick et al., 2008) while, on the other hand, the lens of context sets the scene for each interpretive story so that the participant felt heard by the researcher. Context is relevant when dealing with complex phenomena, and the way of generating new knowledge is augmented and made whole by considering context (Tomoaia-Cotisel et al., 2013). In this present study, the lens of context was noted by the researcher and written into the interpretive story so that each interpretive story included the context of the participant’s experience.

The lens of moments is when the participant had a ‘realisation’ during the retelling of their experience (Rooney & Whitton, 2016). This realisation was an insight, colloquially called an ‘aha’ moment. Laukkonen and Tangen (2018) concluded that a self-reported measure of an “aha moment” is methodologically and theoretically sufficient. In this present study, the participant was able to self-report the “aha moment” during the interview as a result of self-reflection which took place after drawing the image. The lens of moment helped the researcher to interpret and add meaning to the interview transcript.

The lens of language includes what was said, how it was said and what was unsaid, and this was built into each interpretive story (McCormack, 2004). Language is the primary approach to accessing a participant’s experiences (Polkinghorne, 2005).

Using these four lenses helped add meaning to the story, as Murray (2000) explained that these levels of analysis enabled the researcher to show different meanings in stories. Table 2 is an extract of the application of McCormack’s lens of narrative process, content, moments and language.

Table 2.

Lens of Narrative Process, Content, Moments and Language Extracts

Lens of narrative process	Lens of context	Lens of moments	Lens of language
Emotional expression plays a pivotal role in the storytelling process. Participants articulate their feelings throughout their narratives, which can reveal their internal conflicts and resolutions. For instance	Why the participant attended the programme (past) is of particular interest, as participant readiness can be seen as a condition that exists within the participant even before the programme starts. An example of why the participant attended the programme (past)	The ‘aha’ moments were often about an event that took place during the experience that were realised during the interview for example	In analysing what was said, the following was noted: Groupings and phrases. An example is: “of course” and “it was natural that.” this helped the researcher hear when the participant thought that what they were about to say was obvious to the listener. Negative experiences were noted: “unfortunately I had a bad experience from a team point of view”, and frequently used words such as “frustrated,” were noted so that the researcher could understand the feelings that took place when the individual interacted with the set. When emotions were high, it was normally due to conflict in the set.
I still remember sometimes last year when I was asked by my manager to represent our department on an important meeting. I was gripped by fear, doubting myself, whether I can be that good or not since I was not used to be in such big event. However, I tried my level best and later realised that I was doing great. It was like I was the one representing the department all along. I was very happy about that. I realised that it is all about believing in yourself that you can do great things	I was nagged by my line manager. She actually asked me 3 years ago to do it, but I used an overseas trip as an excuse not to go. One of my friends in Johannesburg did the course and we are very similar, and I could get a better idea in terms of impact on my time and family. He had an amazing experience. I said I will do it. I was so glad to do it as it was really a good experience. You have to have the right mindset to do the MDP. I worked hard (Rhys-P3)
This emotional arc is essential for understanding the transformative nature of their experiences. Including dialogue in narratives allows participants to showcase their interactions with others	All of the responses regarding the significance of why the participant attended the programme were included in each interpretive story and written up as part of the introduction to the story	I thought to myself that I need some time just to process this and to say, maybe, a few different things that I have learnt and how do I apply them and then what about things I want to take further and start to concentrate on. I would like to sort of crystallise what I have learnt and give myself the space to do that, and I would like some coaching on what paths I can develop within my work (Luke-P3)	The analysis of how it was said includes the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of the events, not simply what was said. What is important to recognise is that an interview is never a simple process of sitting down with a participant and asking them to tell their story. An example of this is when Mark-P3 said, “I get emotional about it”, and the researcher could hear the pause in his voice when he said this. The researcher then included the emotion that was heard in the interpretive stories

The additional insights gained through the application of the four lenses helped add depth in understanding the participants’ experiences, which assisted in writing the interpretive stories. If coding had been directly applied to the transcript, the depth of interpretation might have been lost. Through the application of the four lenses, the researcher was able to deliberately include insight in each interpretive story.

During a challenging learning experience, participants can feel deep shifts in perspective during which they may suddenly see themselves and the world from a different perspective – this can be called an “aha moment” (Longhurst, 2006). In this study, the participants used the phrase “aha moment”, which was included in the brief to prepare for the interview. The instructions were: think about your individual learning and draw this learning in a sketch. To help you draw your picture, please read the tips below:

(1) I am happy if you draw sketches as I am not interested in your ability to draw but rather your story of deep learning (please don’t use computer aided images).

(2) Feel free to use colour if you wish.

(3) If you had any aha moment(s) please draw them

(4) What caused each aha moment to take place?

(5) What are the outcomes/results of each aha moment?

(6) Please email me the picture and the description before the interview date.

Participants then attended a semi-structured interview where the aha moment was explored in more detail, as well as Hoggan’s parameters of transformative learning. (Table 3)

Table 3.

Interview Questions (Robertson et al., 2019)

Typology (Hoggan)	Interview questions
Picture: ‘Aha moments’	• Can you talk me through your picture…can you explain the symbols/images/metaphors in the picture?
	• Did you have any aha moments? Can you describe your most significant aha moment? How did this moment start?
	• Can you tell me how you experienced drawing your learning? Was it easy/hard, how did it help/hinder in articulating your ideas?
Self	• Can you give me some examples where you went through significant change within yourself?
Self	• What assumptions did you make about yourself before you worked on this project and have those assumptions changed?
Worldview/Paradigm/Mental model	• What new awareness do you have since working on this project? Explain
Worldview/Paradigm/Mental model	• Can you give me some examples where you changed your beliefs?
Epistemology	• Can you give me some examples during this project where you challenged yourself? What did you learn from this?
Ontology	• Describe your emotions as you worked on this project. (…And then what happened?)
Unlearning	• Did you find that there was something you had to unlearn?
Others	• Have your family, friends or work colleagues commented on any changes that they have seen in you?

The narrative in the extract in Figure 2 is a worked example of an interpretive story. The extract encapsulates Prisha’s journey through a management development programme (MDP), highlighting the significant personal and professional growth she experienced despite initial reservations. After her nomination by the manager who recognised her potential, Prisha found herself grappling with feelings of guilt over being selected above a colleague. This selection weighed heavily on her, prompting introspection about her worthiness and contributions to the team. The programme served as a pivotal moment in her career, leading to a promotion and a deeper understanding of her leadership style. Throughout her experience, Prisha employed drawing as a reflective tool, using it to visualise her thoughts and the complexities of her learning journey, which allowed her to articulate the diverse elements of her growth.

Figure 2.

Extract of a Worked Example of an Interpretive Story (Participant Prisha)

The process of drawing became a crucial aspect of Prisha’s reflection, enabling her to relive and analyse her experiences. Initially overwhelmed by the demands of her role and the chaotic environment, she depicted her feelings through images of tornadoes, symbolising her struggle for control amidst uncertainty. As the programme progressed, Prisha confronted her tendency to micromanage, realising that this behaviour limited both her growth and that of her team. The group’s collective challenges, including personal crises, fostered a sense of camaraderie and taught her the importance of trust and support. Therefore, through continuous questioning and reflection facilitated by the process, Prisha gained clarity on her leadership approach, learning to prioritise strategic oversight over day-to-day operational control. This journey not only reinforced her learning but also highlighted the value of collaboration and adaptability in a leadership role. As can be seen in the worked example, the bold italics are the actual voice of participant Prisha, whereas the normal writing is the interpretation of the researcher who applied the four lenses.

Once the interpretative stories were written, the researcher was left with the quandary of how to take the analysis further and make sense of all the stories that were written, making the analysis of narratives the next step to consider.

Analysis of Narratives

After crafting the interpretive stories, the researcher recognised the need for additional insights to fully appreciate participants’ experiences. This led to the inclusion of narrative analysis, which raises the question of whether narratives, such as interpretive stories, should be analysed or allowed to stand alone. Although stories often speak for themselves in everyday contexts, narrative inquiry necessitates a careful interpretation of how facts are assembled, for whom the story is constructed, and for what purpose (Riessman & Speedy, 2007).

In this study, participants were consulted about the researcher’s interpretation and analysis, to ensure that their voices were included. The entire interpretive story, including hand-drawn images, was coded. Maintaining the integrity of the text is essential in narrative analysis; therefore, large sections of the text are presented as direct quotations. The researcher employed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework to extract prominent themes from the interpretive stories. This process was enhanced by thematic maps and networks, which facilitated the structuring and visualisation of themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). In adapting Braun and Clarke’s (2006) methodology, the researcher employed a seven-step approach tailored to the specific context of this study. While some may argue that narrative-based enquiries stop at interpretive stories, it is essential to recognise that many researchers proceed to analyse these narratives within a broader context or in relation to the overarching research question, thereby enriching the understanding of the narratives and their implications.

Step five and step six from Table 4 on thematic maps and networks require an additional explanation. Step five thematic maps: a thematic map was designed per participant using colours to depict a theme. For example, in Figure 3, the global theme of readiness to learn and its organising themes and basic themes are written in green. The global theme is written in the circle; the organising themes are sub-themes and are included in bold in the text box. The basic themes are listed under organising themes in bullet points.

Table 4.

Seven Steps Taken in Thematic Analysis

Seven steps	Description
One: Immersed in the data	The researcher immersed herself in the data so that she was familiar with the depth and breadth of the content. This involved the researcher typing up the interview transcripts verbatim, continually listening to the interview recordings, writing up of the interpretive stories and “repeated reading” of the interpretive stories with the aim of identifying patterns and meaning (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 87)
Two: Generating initial codes	This point is about reduction of the data (Attride-Stirling, 2001) and involved the production of initial codes from the interpretive stories. “Codes identify a feature of the data that appear interesting” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 88). The researcher read through the interpretive stories four times and coded and recoded to devise a coding framework. The coding framework was completed manually by using coloured pens to indicate initial codes in the interpretive story (Braun & Clarke, 2006). As a result of this initial coding, 61 initial codes were derived where the emphasis was conceptual, and a given quotation could be classified under more than one code. The quotations that were linked to the codes were written down in the researcher’s notes
Three: Identifying themes	“This phase refocuses the analysis at the broader level of themes, rather than codes” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 89). The researcher sorted through the initial codes and clustered them into themes. The researcher used post it notes to sort codes into themes and then assembled the themes into a table. In this present study, the 61 initial codes were grouped into clusters called basic themes, which are the lowest-order themes. The researcher was interested in basic themes that spanned across all interpretive stories, but the researcher also looked for contradictions and differences. There were 52 basic themes which resulted from the clustering of initial codes. The researcher then took the basic themes from the stories and assembled them into groupings based on larger issues, called organising themes, which involved the renaming of the original set of basic themes. The basic themes were grouped into 21 organising themes, which are categories of basic themes grouped together to summarise more abstract principles. The organising themes were then summarised in the light of the main argument into five global themes. Global themes are super-ordinate themes encapsulating the organising themes in the text as a whole (Attride-Stirling, 2001)
Four: Refining and reviewing	This point entailed the refinement and reviewing of themes (Braun & Clark, 2006). The coded data was reviewed and checked to see that a pattern was formed. Then a review of the validity of themes in relation to the data was completed
Five: Thematic map	A thematic map was drawn up per participant (ie, per story) that included the global-themes (in the bubble), the organising-themes (in bold in the block) and basic themes (normal font in the block). Figure 3
Six: Thematic networks	Thereafter, thematic networks were drawn up per global theme. Thematic network diagrams allow for codification of textual data and aid in the structuring and organising of analysis with the aim of identifying patterns (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Figure 4
Seven: Writing up of themes	Writing up of themes in a summary of the research findings. This point includes the writing up of the themes, which includes direct quotations

Figure 3.

Prisha’s Thematic Map

Step six thematic networks: thematic networks are represented as web-like maps depicting the salient themes at each of the three levels, basic, organising and global themes, and the relationship between the themes is illustrated (Attride-Stirling, 2001). For example, in Figure 4, the global themes are represented in blue circles.

Figure 4.

Global Themes for Preconditions for Transformative Learning for all Interpretive Stories

The uses of thematic maps and thematic networks enabled the drawing up of themes during the thematic analysis, overall aiding in the analysis of the interpretative stories while keeping the lenses of context, moments and language intact. The themes were then written up as a summary of findings as part of the research on transformative learning.

Conclusion

This paper contributes to the theory on narrative inquiry by breaking down the process into two levels: narrative analysis and the analysis of narratives. In conclusion, this paper expanded on Angell et al.’s (2015) draw-write-tell method by introducing hand-drawn images before an in-depth interview which allowed for the participant to articulate their lived experience. The hand-drawn images and in-depth interview were transcribed, and the transcript was used to write interpretive stories using McCormack’s (2000a; 2000b) four lenses: process, context, language and moment. McCormack’s (2004) lenses were comprehensive in helping with the analysis of the amounts of text in the transcripts. The interpretive stories (with their hand-drawn images) still necessitated interpretation. To aid in the interpretation, the researcher applied Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis together with thematic maps and thematic diagrams (Attride-Stirling, 2001). In narrative analysis, the researcher is often presented with large amounts of data and they are not sure of what steps to take. This paper aims to guide researchers by giving them direction on the levels to include in narrative inquiry. The researcher found an unusual way of applying narrative inquiry, and the contribution in this paper broadens the methodological approach of narrative inquiry.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

James Lappeman

Consent to Participate

All people involved in this study gave informed written consent prior to participating. Young people involved in the study also gave ongoing,informed verbal consent in conversations with the researcher throughout the project.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

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Transformative Learning: Narrative Analysis or Analysis of Narratives?

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Methodology: Narrative Inquiry and McCormack’s Lenses

Gathering Data: Narrative Analysis

Context of the Study

Observing the Participants

Analysis of Narratives

Conclusion

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Consent to Participate

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

References