This study analyzes US presidential statements on leadership since Franklin Roosevelt. Results indicate that presidents define leadership as visionary, goal oriented, moral, principles based, a responsibility, and a search for the common good. Such definitions typically involve the world of ideas and ideals, which seems to lean more toward a more passive leadership role. However, presidents frequently complement these definitions with discussions of what leaders do, clearly establishing leadership as active rather than passive. Such discussions most often focus on decision making in leadership and the necessity of persuasion to facilitate decisions once made. Finally, presidents emphasize the reciprocal nature of leadership and the necessity of collaboration in leading, particularly given the ultimate importance of and focus on people. This idea of leadership typifies a western/Anglo understanding of leadership not always consistent with other cultural definitions.
Abshire, D.M. (2000) `Constructing the Presidency for the 21st Century: Learning from Past Triumphs and Tragedies', Paper presented at the Lessons Learned in the 20th Century and Leadership for the New Millennium Conference, 9—11 March. Washington, DC.
2.
Andrews, J.R. (2002) `Presidential Leadership and National Identity: Woodrow Wilson and the Meaning of America', in L. G. Dorsey (ed.) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership , pp. 129—44. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
3.
Ashkanasy, N.M., Trevor-Roberts, E., & Earnshaw, L. (2002) `The Anglo Cluster: Legacy of the British Empire ', Journal of World Business37: 28—39.
4.
Bailey, M.E. (2002) `The Heroic Presidency in the Era of Divided Government', Perspectives onPolitical Science31(1): 35—45.
5.
Bailey, M.E., Sigelman, L., & Wilcox, C. (2003) `Presidential Persuasion on Social Issues: A Two-way Street?', Political Research Quarterly56(1): 49—58.
6.
Bakacsi, G., Sandor, T., Andras, K., & Viktor, I. (2002) `Eastern European Cluster: Tradition and Transition ', Journal of World Business37: 69—80.
7.
Barber, J.D. (1985) The Presidential Character. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
8.
Barilleaux, R.J. (2005) `The Presidency in the Twenty First Century', in G. L. Gregg (ed.) Thinking About the Presidency, pp. 496—506. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
9.
Bass, B.M. (1983) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations . New York: Free Press.
10.
Bass, B.M. (1997) `Does the Transactional—Transformational Leadership Paradigm Transcend Organizational and National Boundaries?', American Psychologist52: 130—9.
11.
Bass, B.M. (1999) `Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational Leadership', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology8(1): 9—32.
12.
Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J., & Goodheim, L. (1987) `Biography and the Assessment of Transformational Leadership at the World-class Level', Journal of Management13(1): 7—19.
13.
Benson, T.W. (2004) Writing JFK: Presidential Rhetoric and the Press in the Bay of Pigs Crisis. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
14.
Blakesley, L. (1995) Presidential Leadership. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.
15.
Blunt, P., & Jones, M.L. (1997) `Exploring the Limits of Western Leadership Theory in East Asia and Africa', Personnel Review26(1/2): 6—23.
16.
Bose, M., & Greenstein, F.I. (2002) `The Hidden Hand vs. the Bully Pulpit: The Layered Political Rhetoric of President Eisenhower', in L. G. Dorsey (ed.) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership, pp. 184—99. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
17.
Brain, K., & Lewis, D. (2004) `Exploring Leadership Preferences in Multicultural Workgroups: An Australian Case Study', Leadership and Organization Development Journal25(3): 263—78.
18.
Burns, J.M. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.
19.
Burns, J.M. (1984) The Power to Lead. New York : Simon and Schuster.
20.
Burns, J.M. (2003) Transformational Leadership. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
21.
Carlin, D.B. (2003) `Harry S Truman: From Whistle-stop to the Halls of Congress', in K. Ritter & M. J. Medhurst (eds) Presidential Speechwriting , pp. 40—67. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
22.
Chavez, J. (1975) Presidential Influence on the Politics of Higher Education: The Higher Education Act of 1965. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin .
23.
Chernus, I. (2002) Eisenhower's Atoms for Peace. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press .
24.
Cronin, T.E., & Genovese, M.A. (2001) `Required Reading for the 43rd President and New Presidential Advisors: Lessons Learned on Getting Started and Exercising Presidential Leadership', White HouseStudies1(1): 67—86.
25.
Cspan (1999) `American Presidents '. Available at: http://www.americanpresidents.org/
26.
Dallek, R. (1995) `Lyndon B. Johnson', in R. A. Wilson (ed.) Character Above All, pp. 105—27. New York: Simon and Schuster.
27.
DiClerico, R.E. (1995) The American President. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
28.
Dorsey, L.G. (2002) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press .
29.
Edelman, M. (1971) Politics as Symbolic Action. Chicago, IL: Markham.
30.
Edelman, M. (1977) Political Language. New York : Academic Press.
31.
Edelman, M. (1988) Constructing the Political Spectacle. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
32.
Edinger, L.J. (1990) `Approaches to the Comparative Analysis of Political Leadership', The Review of Politics52(4): 509—23.
33.
Edwards, G.C. (1989) At the Margins: Presidential Leadership of Congress . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
34.
Edwards, G.C. (2002) `Does the Messenger Matter?', Congress & The Presidency29(1): 25—46.
35.
Emrich, C.G., Bower, H.H., Feldman, J.M., & Garland, H. (2001) `Images in Words: Presidential Rhetoric, Charisma, and Greatness', Administrative Science Quarterly46(3): 527—58.
36.
Fabbrini, S. (1994) `Personalization as Americanization? The Rise and Fall of Leader-dominated Governmental Strategies in Western Europe in the Eighties', American Studies International32(2): 51—66.
Fischer, D.H. (1970) Historians' Fallacies. New York : Harper and Row.
39.
Fishman, E. (ed.) (2002) Tempered Strength: Studies in the Nature and Scope of Prudential Leadership. Lanham, MD: Lexington.
40.
Gardner, G. (1986) All the Presidents''Wits. New York: Beech Tree.
41.
Gardner, H. (1995) Leading Minds. New York: Basic.
42.
Goethals, G.R. (2005) `Presidential Leadership', Annual Review of Psychology56: 545—70.
43.
Goodnight, G.T. (2002) `Ronald Reagan and the American Dream: A Study in Rhetoric out of Time', in L. G. Dorsey (ed.) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership, pp. 200—30. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press .
44.
Greenstein, F. I. (ed.) (1988) Leadership in the Modern Presidency. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
45.
Greenstein, F.I. (2001a) `George W. Bush and the Ghosts of Presidents Past', PS, Political Science & Politics34(1): 77—80.
46.
Greenstein, F.I. (2001b) The Presidential Difference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
47.
Griffin, C.J.G. (2003) `Dwight D. Eisenhower: The 1954 State of the Union Address as a Case Study in Presidential Speechwriting', in K. Ritter & M. J. Medhurst (eds) Presidential Speechwriting, pp. 68—91. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press .
48.
Gupta, V., Surie, G., Javidan, M., & Chhokar, J. (2002) `Southern Asia Cluster: Where the Old Meets the New', Journal of World Business37: 16—27.
49.
Hargrove, E.C. (1998) The President as Leader. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
50.
Hargrove, E.C. (2001) `Presidential Power and Political Science', Presidential Studies Quarterly31(2): 245—61.
51.
Hart, R.P. (1987) The Sound of Leadership. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
52.
Hart, R.P. (2002) `Why Do They Talk That Way? A Research Agenda for the Presidency', Presidential Studies Quarterly32(4): 693—709.
53.
Heith, D.J. (2004) Polling to Govern. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
54.
Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
55.
Hofstede, G., & Bond, H. (1988) `The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth', Organizational Dynamics16(4): 5—21.
56.
Hogg, M.A. (2001) `A Social Identity Theory of Leadership', Personality and Social Psychology Review5: 184—200.
57.
Hogg, M.A. (2003) `Social Identity and Leadership Processes in Groups ', in M. P. Zanna (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, pp. 1—52. San Diego, CA: Academic.
58.
Holsti, O.R. (1969) Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
59.
Houck, D.W. (2002) FDR and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address . College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
60.
House, R.J., & Shamir, B. (1993) `Toward the Integration of Transformational, Charismatic, and Visionary Theories', in M. M. Chemers & R. Ayman (eds) Leadership Theory and Research, pp. 81—107. San Diego, CA: Academic.
61.
House, R.J., Spangler, W.D., & Woycke, J. (1991) `Personality and Charisma in the U.S. Presidency: A Psychological Theory of Leader Effectiveness', Administrative Science Quarterly36: 364—96.
62.
Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1995) `Charismatic Leadership: Submission or Liberation? ', Business Quarterly60: 62—70.
63.
Hult, K.M., & Walcott, C.E. (2001) `Separating Rhetoric from Policy: Speechwriting under Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter', White HouseStudies1(4): 463—82.
64.
Jesuino, J.C. (2002) `Latin Europe Cluster: From South to North', Journal of World Business37: 81—9.
65.
Kabasakal, H., & Bodur, M. (2002) `Arabic Cluster: A Bridge between East and West ', Journal of World Business37: 49—54.
66.
Katz, M. (2003) Clinton & MeNew York: Miramax.
67.
Kennedy, J.F. (1955) Profiles in Courage. New York : Harper.
68.
Kuchinke, K.P. (1999) `Leadership and Culture: Work-related Values and Leadership Styles among One Company's U.S. and German Telecommunication Employees ', Human Resource Development Quarterly10(2): 135—55.
69.
Light, P.C. (2000) The President's Agenda. Baltimore, MA: Johns Hopkins University Press.
70.
Marx, E. (2001) Breaking through Cultural Shock. London: Nicholas Brealey.
71.
Medhurst, M.J. (2003) `Presidential Speechwriting: Ten Myths That Plague Modern Scholarship', in K. Ritter & M. J. Medhurst (eds) Presidential Speechwriting, pp. 3—20. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
72.
Mehta, R., Larsen, T., Rosenbloom, B., Mazur, J., & Polsa, P. (2001) `Leadership and Cooperation in Marketing Channels: A Comparative Empirical Analysis of the USA, Finland, and Poland', International Marketing Review18(6): 633—66.
73.
Moen, M.C. (1988) `The Political Agenda of Ronald Reagan: A Content Analysis of the State of the Union Messages', Presidential Studies Quarterly18: 775—85.
74.
Mole, J. (1993) Mind Your Manners: Managers''Guide to Working in the Single European Market. London: The Industrial Society.
75.
Morris, D. (1997) Behind the Oval Office. New York: Random House.
76.
Muir, W.K. (1992) The Bully Pulpit. San Francisco, CA: ICS Press.
77.
Muir, W.K. (2003) `Ronald Reagan's Bully Pulpit: Creating a Rhetoric of Values', in K. Ritter & M. J. Medhurst (eds) Presidential Speechwriting , pp. 194—216. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
78.
Murphy, J.M. (2002) `Cunning, Rhetoric, and the Presidency of William Jefferson Clinton', in L. G. Dorsey (ed.) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership, pp. 231—51. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press .
Neustadt, R.E. (1990) Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents (3rd edn). New York: The Free Press.
81.
Nixon, R.M. (1982) Leaders. New York: Warners.
82.
Noonan, P. (1990) What I Saw at the Revolution. New York: Random House.
83.
Osborne, R.E. (1990) President Nixon and Higher Education Policymaking: Influences and Achievements, 1969—1974. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Tulsa.
84.
Peterson, R.B. (1972) `A Cross-cultural Perspective of Supervisory Values ', Academy of Management Journal15(1): 105-—17.
85.
Phillips, D.T. (1997) The Founding Fathers on Leadership: Classic Teamwork in Changing Times. New York: Warner .
86.
Pillai, R. (1998) `Does Leadership Matter in the Political Arena? Voters' Perceptions of Candidates' Transformational and Charismatic Leadership and the 1996 U.S. Presidential Vote', Leadership Quarterly9(3): 397—417.
87.
Pillai, R., Scandura, T.A., & Williams, E.A. (1999) `Leadership and Organizational Justice: Similarities and Differences Across Cultures', Journal of International Business Studies30(4): 763—79.
88.
Pillai, R., Stites-Doe, S., & Brodowsky, G. (2004) `Presidential Scandal and Leadership: A Natural Laboratory Test of the Resiliency of President Clinton's Transformational Leadership During the Impeachment Crisis', Journal of Applied Social Psychology34(6): 1109—30.
89.
Reagan, R., Anderson, A., & Anderson, M. (2001) Reagan, in His Own Hand: The Writings of Ronald Reagan That Reveal His Revolutionary Vision for America. New York: The Free Press.
90.
Reihlen, M. (2001) `Does National Culture Induce a European Style of Management'. Available at: www.pweglobal.com/extweb/newcoweb.nsf/docial/CFEBOREE514840F385256A23075ecd8?Opendocument
Rockman, B.A. (1984) The Leadership Question. New York: Praeger.
93.
Rodríguez, C.M. (2005) `Emergence of a Third Culture: Shared Leadership in International Strategic Alliances', International Marketing Review22(1): 67—95.
94.
Russ-Eft, D. (1999) `Everyone a Leader: A North American and European Comparison'. Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research. Available at: www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000001159.htm
95.
Schlesinger, A.M. (1986) The Cycles of American History. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
96.
Schneider, J., & Littrell, R.F. (2003) `Leadership Preferences of German and English Managers', Journal of Management Development22(2): 130—48.
97.
Schurin, R.C. (1998) `The President as Disciplinarian', Presidential Studies Quarterly28(2): 409—21.
98.
Seligman, L.G., & Covington, C.R. (1996) `Presidential Leadership with Congress: Change, Coalitions, and Crisis', in J. A. Thurber (ed.) Rivals for Power, pp. 64—85. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
99.
Shogan, R. (1991) `What Makes a President Successful', American Enterprise2(2): 40—51.
100.
Shull, S.A., & Garland, D. (1995) `Presidential Influence versus Agency Characteristics in Explaining Policy Implementation', Policy Studies Review14: 49—70.
101.
Siegel, M.E. (2001) `Lessons in Leadership from Three American Presidents', Journal of LeadershipStudies8(1): 34—48.
102.
Simonton, D.K. (1986) `Presidential Personality: Biographical Use of the Gough Adjective Checklist', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology51: 149—60.
103.
Simonton, D.K. (1987a) `Presidential Inflexibility and Veto Behavior: Two Individual—Situational Interactions', Journal of Personality55(1): 1—19.
104.
Simonton, D.K. (1987b) Why Presidents Succeed: A Political Psychology of Leadership. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
105.
Skowronek, S. (1993) The Politics Presidents Make. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
106.
Skowronek, S. (2002) `Presidency and American Political Development: A Third Look', Presidential Studies Quarterly32(4): 743—52.
107.
Skowronek, S. (2005) `Change and Continuity in the Politics of Leadership ', in G. L. Gregg (ed.) Thinking About the Presidency, pp. 458—85. Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield.
108.
Spreitzer, G.M., Perttula, K.H., & Xin, K. (2005) `Traditionality Matters: An Examination of the Effectiveness of Transformational Leadership in the United States and Taiwan ', Journal of Organizational Behavior26: 205—27.
109.
Stephanopoulos, G. (1999) All Too Human. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
110.
Strock, J.M. (1998) Reagan on Leadership. Rocklin, CA: Prima.
111.
Stuckey, M.E. (2004) Defining Americans. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
112.
Suutari, V., & Riusala, K. (2001) `Leadership Styles in Central Eastern Europe: Experiences of Finnish Expatriates in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland', Scandinavian Journal of Management17(2): 249—80.
113.
Szabo, E., Brodbeck, F.C., Den Hartog, D.N., Reber, G., Weibler, J., & Wunderer, R. (2002) `The Germanic Europe Cluster: Where Employees Have a Voice', Journal of World Business37: 55—68.
114.
Tixier, M. (1994) `Management and Communication Styles in Europe: Can They Be Compared and Matched?', Employee Relations16(1): 8—26.
115.
Tyler, T.R., & Lind, E.A. (1992) `A Relational Model of Authority in Groups', Advances in Experimental Social Psychology25: 115—91.
116.
Vaughn, J.S., & Villalobos, J.D. (2006) `Conceptualizing and Measuring White House Staff Influence on Presidential Rhetoric', Presidential Studies Quarterly36(4): 681—9.
117.
Vries, M. F. R. K. d., Vrignaud, P., & Florent-Treacy, E. (2004) `The Global Leadership Life Inventory: Development and Psychometric Properties of a 360-degree Feedback Instrument', International Journal of Human Resource Management15(3): 475—92.
118.
Waldman, M. (2000) POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency. New York: Simon and Schuster.
119.
Weber, R.P. (1985) Basic ContentAnalysis. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
120.
Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents (2002) George W. Bush.Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register.
121.
Western Standard Publishing Company (1997) American Freedom Library (Version 3.11.4). Orem, UT: Western Standard Publishing Company.
122.
Will, G. (1984) `The Presidency in the American Political System ', Presidential Studies Quarterly14: 324—34.
123.
Wills, G. (1994) Certain Trumpets. New York: Simon and Schuster.
124.
Winter, D.G. (1987) `Leader Appeal, Leader Performance, and the Motive Profiles of Leaders and Followers: A Study of American Presidents and Elections ', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology52: 196—202.
125.
Wood, J., & Vilkinas, T. (2005) Characteristics Associated with Success: CEOs' Perspectives', Leadership and Organization Development Journal26(3): 186—96.
126.
Yokochi, N. (1989) Leadership Styles of Japanese Business Executives and Managers: Transformational and Transactional. Unpublished doctoral dissertation , United States International University, San Diego, CA.
127.
Zarefsky, D. (2002) `The Presidency Has Always Been a Place for Rhetorical Leadership', in L. G. Dorsey (ed.) The Presidency and Rhetorical Leadership, pp. 20—41. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
128.
Zarefsky, D. (2004) `Presidential Rhetoric and the Power of Definition ', Presidential Studies Quarterly34(3): 607—19.
