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Abstract

Previous studies have made a significant contribution to the modeling of constraints on women’s sports participation, including religious and cultural issues, gender inequality, and socio-cultural restrictions, especially in Muslim countries. However, there is still a knowledge gap in this field. Using the survey method with stratified random sampling (strata), data were collected from the colleges of four provinces in Pakistan. After eliminating defective (missing data and duplication) samples, 687 valid questionnaires were retained. The eight most common influencing factors for sports participation among Pakistani female students were then incorporated into a constraints model in the context of feminism in sports theory, which was validated using AMOS 24. The results suggested the following measures: introducing sports activities and female coaches in schools; the government provision of female-only facilities; removing the misconception that Islam is an anti-sports religion; raising awareness among female students and their parents about sports benefits; and using the concept of negotiation to overcome these constraints. According to the results of the present study, we conclude that providing women-only facilities, spreading the correct meaning of religion (Islam), and raising awareness among women and their parents could enhance female students’ sports participation in Pakistan to a great extent.

Keywords

Pakistan female students sports participation structural equation modeling statistical model

Background

In most countries, the importance of a lifestyle that incorporates daily sports activities is becoming increasingly understood and promoted (Laar, Shi, et al., 2021; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). According to the National Institute of Leisure Sports in Schools (NIRSA), participating in sports activities also has benefits for academic achievements (Cheng et al., 2004). In addition, participation in sports activities not only is conducive to physical and mental development but also helps to enhance the strength of the community by promoting social interaction, community participation, and cultural harmony, as well as reducing the occurrence of anti-social activities (Coakley, 1993; Collins & Kay, 2003; Cortis et al., 2007; Kenyon & McPherson, 1973). According to Brown et al. (2012), even low-level sports participation is better than no participation at all. Despite these benefits of sports participation, many people fail to participate in such activities, especially women. It was observed in the literature that the restrictions faced by women in sports participation are similar around the world and include inadequate facilities, gender inequality, low government/sports federation funding for women, religious limitations, insufficient expert coaches for women athletes, insufficient females in main administrative positions, and a lack of permission from one’s parents (especially in Muslim countries) (Abo-Zena, 2019; Ahmad, 2015; Walseth & Strandbu, 2014). Muslim women make up one-fifth of the world’s female population but often do not participate in physical activities, including national events and international games such as the Olympics, Commonwealth, and Asian Games (see Laar, Shi, et al., 2021; Lenneis & Pfister, 2017; Limoochi & Le Clair, 2011).

Historically, women have often been considered inferior to men in terms of their physical capabilities and athletic prowess. Currently, almost 90% of Pakistani females do not participate in sports or physical activities due to various social, political, economic, curriculum-based, religious, and safety issues (Laar, 2018). In terms of college female students’ participation in sports, there is a clear relationship between students’ participation in sports and the constraints they face. The best way to understand these constraints on female sports participation is by actually surveying college students (Alexandris & Carroll, 2000; Hall et al., 2002). Mostly, Pakistani female students do not participate in college-arranged physical activities for various reasons (Domhughes, 1990). The present study focuses primarily on highlighting the constraints on female sport participation by collecting data from different colleges. The aim of this study is to contribute to the literature om low female sports participation in Pakistan by presenting a model of constraints. Despite the significant contributions of previous work regarding constraints on female sports participation and the modeling thereof (e.g., Crawford et al., 1991; Hudson, 2000; Jackson & Scott, 1999; Kay & Jackson, 1991; Lyu, 2012; Scott, 1991; Shaw et al., 1991; White, 2008), some of the recognized limitations of these studies highlight the need for additional research to clarify the constraints models and demonstrate the distinctiveness of Pakistani society to fully understand the nature of restrictions found in many Muslim countries.

Hultsman (1992) observed that a lack of parental permission, lack of skills, inadequate facilities, and security issues were the most significant factors constraining female students from participating in sports in Pakistan. A TrustLaw poll ranked Pakistan as the third most unsafe country for women (Anderson, 2011). Family problems are also one of the obstacles to Pakistani participation in sports, especially for women. In the family, parents can have a significant negative or positive impact on individual participation in sports (Hay & Côté, 1993). Furthermore, many studies have shown that most Muslim female students (including Pakistani women) do not know the benefits of participating in sports (Ehsani, 2005). According to the results of a survey by Laar, Zhang, et al. (2019) administered in all four provinces of Pakistan, the main obstacles facing Pakistani female students in terms of sports participation are religious and cultural limitations, a lack of permission from parents, and a lack of sports facilities and equipment. As Olajide (2004) and Laar, Zhang, et al. (2019) noted, without sports facilities, it is almost impossible for athletes to achieve their required goal because a sports facility is an athlete’s laboratory. Even when facilities are present Pakistan, they are often outdated, open-air, and/or mixed gender, with female students often feeling embarrassed to participate in sports alongside, or be visible to, men. Hence, such women decide not to use these facilities (Richards, 2017). In Pakistan, most females do not participate in college-arranged sports activities for many reasons, such as insufficient skilled physical education teachers, inadequate government funds, inadequate facilities, and a lack of physical education classes as extracurricular activities (Laar, Shi, et al., 2021; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). The international sports participation of Pakistani women in sport is also limited. For example, to date, no Pakistani females have ever participated in the Winter Olympics Games, and only 10 Pakistani women have ever participated in the Summer Olympics (Laar, 2018). These aforementioned studies all provide evidence that females’ participation in sports in Pakistan is limited by many factors, resulting in strikingly low female participation. Considering these aforementioned points, the Pakistani people must take practical measures to promote gender equality, overcome obstacles to female sports participation, and promote the slogan of “Sports for All” (Abass, 2011).

Review of the Literature

Over the past three decades, the concept of constraints on sports activities has focused on developing a better understanding of impacts on attitudes, preferences, and subsequent participation in sports (Godbey et al., 2010; Jackson & Scott, 1999). This subject has become a central theme of research related to sports participation during the past 25 years (Jackson, 2005) and, in relation to sports activities, is often related to the division between personal cognition and experience, which limits participation in desired activities (Jackson, 1997). According to Crawford and Godbey (1987), constraints can be classified into three categories: internal constraints (defined as the individual’s psychological qualities that influence participation; e.g., shyness), interpersonal constraints (defined as social factors such as inadequate partners), and structural constraints (e.g., financial support).

Research has shown that women are more restricted than men in terms of sports participation (e.g., Henderson & Bialeschki, 1993; Shaw, 1994; Shaw et al., 1991). According to Messner (1988), women face gender stereotypes and are considered to be weak and obedient. Letting women participate in sporting events was even, at one time, considered a challenge to male dominancy. Distance to the stadium, a lack of time, inadequate information, crowding, family commitments, and cost are among the other highly influential elements that Walker and Virden (2005) highlighted in their study. It is challenging for the majority of athletes to afford all these issues unless they can obtain sponsorships or other forms of assistance (Ellin, 2008). McGuire (1984) and Henderson et al. (1988) concluded that external resources, social factors, time, physical health, facilities, skills and abilities, opportunities, and religious and cultural limitations are important factors influencing sports participation, especially for women. Several studies had shown different cases related to the relationship between Islamic dress and the banning of women in some sports (Megheirkouni, 2017). For example, the problem of the Hijab (veil) is at least partly responsible for the low number of Arab women participating in the Olympic Games (Raad, 2004).

Research on constraints has improved with the development of several conceptual models (e.g., Godbey et al., 2010; Jackson, 2005). Among them, the inspiration for the present study is the hierarchical model of constraints proposed by Crawford et al. (1991). According to this model, three different types of constraints enter the decision-making process of individual participation in sports activities, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

A hierarchical model of leisure constraints.

Notably, to maintain good physical and mental health, the World Health Organization (WHO) strongly recommends 30 minutes of physical activity per day (Menhas et al., 2021). However, according to WHO data, nearly 60% of the world’s population does not participate in such activities, and women account for the majority of this percentage (WHO, 2021). According to Cailliau (2013), about 80% of Pakistan’s population has failed to achieve this goal, with the proportion of women being higher than that of men (see also Laar, Shi, & Ashraf, 2019; Laar, Shi, et al., 2021; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). Plenty of organizations and sports federations have sought to improve females’ sports participation in Pakistan, such as the Insan Foundation Trust, Right To Play, the Joint Action Committee for People’s Rights, and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (see Laar, Shi, et al., 2021), but all efforts have been unsuccessful (United Nations Office of Sport for Development and Peace, 2005). In Pakistan, the main constraints on women’s participation in sports are a lack of facilities; economic problems; a lack of permission; and social, cultural, and religious limitations (Cailliau, 2013; Laar, Shi, & Ashraf, 2019). In Pakistan, it is generally believed that sports are masculine, which means that women cannot build a muscular enough body to be competitive in any sports events.

The theoretical framework of the present research is based on the concept of “feminism,” which emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries. Feminism is a concept or movement whose goal is for women to realize and achieve their rights and actual status in society (Laar, 2018). In sports research, feminist theory proposes how men and women should participate in sports activities within a hegemonic social system (Laar, 2018). For example, women have the ability to achieve better performance in sports, should be allowed to play in sports, and should be given appropriate sports facilities equal to those of men (Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019; Story & Markula, 2017).

It is commonly believed in Pakistan that intensive sports can damage a woman’s fertility (Laar, 2018). Another constraining factor for women’s participation in sports activities in Pakistan is the false association between participation in sports activities and unacceptable attitudes and cultural values for both society and religion, that is, an assumption that women participating in sports activities is unacceptable in Pakistani society and that it goes against culture and religion (Laar, 2018). In Pakistan, most female students do not participate in school-arranged sports activities for many reasons, including a lack of skilled physical education teachers, no physical education classes as extracurricular activities, inadequate government funds, insufficient facilities, problems gaining parental permission, and religious and cultural limitations (Laar, Shi, & Ashraf, 2019; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). There is also a lack of female-specific courses for females who are shy or embarrassed by the prospect of exposing their bodies while exercising with men. Due to all these barriers, Pakistani female students find it extremely difficult to play sports as their profession. Women can play sports for fun in some single-sex areas but not to a level that would enable them to gain employment in sports or become professional athletes (Domhughes, 1990). Apart from the above limitations, physical education classes are not considered as important as other academic disciplines (see Laar, Shi, & Ashraf, 2019; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). In most schools, physical education classes are not even present on the syllabus. This factor further limits sports participation, especially for female students (Yu et al., 2004). Solving the above-mentioned challenges could greatly improve women’s sports participation in Pakistan (details are given in the “Discussion and Conclusion” section). While a few studies have been done from this perspective, focusing, for example, on the participation levels of women from Muslim countries, research in this area is far from exhaustive. There remains a gap in this field of study, especially regarding the constraints model of Pakistani women in the context of participation in physical activities. The present study explores the constraints on female students’ sports participation in a Muslim country—in this case, Pakistan—and presents a model of constraints. The constraints model of this study is based on the eight most common influencing factors (and their sub-dimensions) in sports participation among Pakistani female students (see Table A1). The current study also provides some constructive suggestions based on the findings and results.

Methods

The main method of this study is a survey. Similar to previous studies (Kara & Demirci, 2010), data were collected using stratified random sampling based on participants’ shared characteristics and attributes. We divided the population into four sub-groups called strata, in this case, based on the four capital cities of all four provinces of Pakistan (cities n = 4). Two colleges were selected from each city (colleges n = 8), with 100 female students selected from each college using the random sampling method (students n = 800; see Table 1). This sample distribution fairly represented the total population (Young et al., 2003). As in previous studies (Laar, Ashraf, et al., 2021; Laar et al., 2020), all participants gave their informed consent prior to participation, making it clear that participation was voluntary. We completely followed relevant ethical considerations. Notably, this type of data is generally difficult to access in Pakistani society, which makes this material extremely valuable.

Table 1.

Background Information of Adolescent Female Students.

Elements	Frequency	Percent
Sample distribution
Capital cities	4	100
Colleges form each city	2	25
Total colleges	8	100
Adolescent female studentsfrom each college	100	12.5
Total adolescent female students	800	100
Valid responses (after collectionand using Amos)	687	100
Grade
11th	313	45.6
12th	374	54.4
Age
16–18	351	51
19–21	336	48.9
Marital status
Single	667	97
Married	20	3

The qualified questionnaire was taken from previous studies (Alfadhil 1996; Raymore et al., 1993) alongside the help and suggestions of 10 professional experts in the fields of Physical Education, Sociology, and Islamic studies, as well as the literature (see Laar, 2018; Laar, Zhang, et al., 2019). Offering both open- and closed-ended options, we divided the questionnaire into three major parts: demographic and sport-related information about the students, the nature of the constraints, and the reasons for not participating in sporting activities. The influencing factors for sports participation were based on previous research on sports activities (Wilson & Spink, 2006) and the concept of feminism in sports to construct a statistical model of constraints. The eight most influential factors were adopted in the present research based on the literature regarding feminism in the sports theory, the concern and advice of 10 professional experts (see Laar, Zhnag, et al., 2019), and our own self-research background related to Pakistani female sports participation. These factors were as follows: (A) ethos of the college regarding physical education, (B) sports facilities and equipment, (C) religion and culture, (D) family values concerning physical education, (E) economic issues, (F) gender issues, (G) political issues, and (H) mass media. Each constraint has its ownsub-dimensions, with a total of almost 30 sub-dimensions (see Table A1).

We used factors A1 to A4 to measure Ethos_of_college_PE. A1 to A4 were designated as the observed variables, and Ethos_of_college_PE were designated as the latent variables. Because there are errors in measurement, each latent variable cannot explain 100% of the variation in the observed variable. Usually, each observed variable has a measurement error (residual error), which is captured by e5 to e8 (see Figure 2). Moreover, the data and theoretical model often do not match, and the model needs to be revised. The revised model (step 2 see Figure 3) should be reasonable, clear, and fully explainable. We used the Modification Index (MI) to determine the presence of a relationship that was not preset by the model. As a result, the model utilized the following pairs of two-way relationships (double arrows): e11 to e15, e18 to e22, e21 to e23, e31 to e27, and e13 to e28, as presented in Figure 3 (see also Tables 5 and 6). These are variables that our model did not introduce but which have certain correlations. We considered the meaning of each item and confirmed whether the relationship was in accordance with common sense, rather than making a decision solely from a data perspective.

Figure 2.

Modified for production.

Figure 3.

Statistical constraints model (step 2).

For example, the estimate of e11 and e15 was 0.316, which is a positive two-way correlation (Table 6). Here, e11 corresponds to B3, “Some sporting facilities are far from home; I worry about security on the way,” and e15 corresponds to C3, “Due to religious extremists and society’s influential persons.” In other words, when the facility is far away from one’s residence, and road safety is concerning, the restrictions on people by religion and society will have a greater impact. When religious and social restrictions decrease, people become less worried about staying away from their homes and safety on the road. Thus, both factors change in the same direction at the same time. Moreover, the estimate of e18 and e22 was −0.22, which is a negative two-way correlation (Table 6). Here, e18 corresponds to D1, “Parents ask me to stay at home for home making, cooking, and baby-sitting,” and e22 corresponds to D5, “Parents don’t allow me to do physical activities because guys are participating and/or watching” (−0.22). When parents emphasize that women need to cook at home and look after their babies, those women are more likely to stop participating in sports activities because they have no free time.

All sub-dimensions of each constraint were rated using a five-point Likert scale (Henderson et al., 1988; Jackson, 1983; Witt & Goodale, 1981) ranging from 1 (none) to 5 (very high). The main aim of studying these influencing factors was to understand the nature of Pakistani female students’ constraints in terms of sports participation and, ultimately, to overcome these constraints in order to achieve the WHO-recommended levels of sports participation among Pakistani females.

Data analysis involved understanding the subjects’ choices in the questionnaire and then assigning patterns and links. The validation of this survey involved pilot studies, training the interviewers, and assessing the quality of the data collection. The Cronbach’s alpha value was .78, which indicates sufficient internal consistency when evaluating the reliability of the questionnaire. These models were then analyzed using feminist theory (Patton, 2002). In order to ensure the high quality of our research, we used structural equation modeling (McKellar et al., 2019) with the Asset Management Operating System (Amos, version 24). Notably, this type of data is generally difficult to access in Pakistani society, which makes this material extremely valuable and increases the significance of this study. Moreover, with the help of Amos 24, we were able to remove the “barriers” that had little or no impact on female students’ participation in Pakistan through confirmatory factor analysis, resulting in a well-defined constraints model that will enrich the literature and overcome some of the limitations of previous studies (Crawford et al., 1991; Hudson, 2000; Jackson & Scott, 1999; Kay & Jackson, 1991; Lyu, 2012; Scott, 1991; Shaw et al., 1991; White, 2008), both by clarifying the constraints model and by demonstrating the distinctiveness found in Pakistani society, which can be used to better understand the nature of restrictions in other Muslim countries.

Results

As previously stated, the constraint model was designed based on previous studies. In order to make the research more accurate, Amos 24 was used to filter the data to construct the model, eliminating all defective (missing data and duplication) samples and constraints (and their sub-dimensions) that had errors and/or little influence on sports activities. Questionnaires were distributed to 800 female students. In response, 786 questionnaires were received and, after eliminating defective samples, 687 female students’ questionnaires were deemed appropriate for use (see Table 1). The statistical constraints model was established by using the survey data. The accuracy of the model was tested using the goodness-of-fit index (GFI), incremental fitting index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and differences of the chi-square and degree of freedom (χ²/df). The standard values for GFI, IFI, and CFI should be >0.90; those for RMSEA should be <0.08; and those for χ²/df should be <2.0. Initially, the model’s GFI was 0.886 (see Table 2 and Figure 2), so the second step of confirmatory factor analysis was carried out.

Table 2.

Original Values of Parameters From the Amos Model (Step 1).

Parameter	Value	Standard value
GFI: goodness-of-fit index	0.886	>0.90
IFI: incremental fit index	0.492	>0.90
CFI: comparative fit index	0.478	>0.90
RMSEA: root mean square errorof approximation	0.057	<0.08
χ²/df: difference of chi-square and degree of freedom	3.2	<2.0

Process of Designing the Statistical Constraints Model

Elimination of main factors

Initially, the eight most influential factors for female student’s sports participation in Pakistan were incorporated (i.e., A–H), including no fewer than 33 sub-dimensions (see Figure 2, Tables A1 and A2). The survey results revealed, however, that female students very rarely chose the H factor (mass media) as a constraint factor for sports participation. In addition, the H factor and its sub-dimensions had little effect on Amos verification. Therefore, in order to avoid affecting the overall model, the H factor and its three sub-dimensions (“The coverage of female sports by mass media is too limited”; “The mass media reports about female sports and physical activities leave females feeling embarrassed in Muslim society”; and “Mass media, most of the time, associates/represents sportswomen with something bad”) were removed (Figure 3; see Tables A1 and A2).

Elimination of sub-dimensions

In the process of eliminating sub-dimensions, we mainly focused on the influence of path coefficients and correction coefficients, while trying to maintain at least three sub-dimensions in each factor. However, through the process of elimination, some factors were left with only two sub-dimensions. The elimination of sub-dimensions was based on two main parameters. First, sub-dimensions with very low path coefficients were removed (e.g., C2 and E4 with path coefficients of only .06 and .11, respectively).

The second parameter concerned the modification index values. After data collation, we selected only the sub-dimensions whose modification index values were less than 10. Sub-dimensions with modification index values greater than 10 were eliminated due to not meeting the requirements of the statistical model (sub-dimensions D3, A4, B2, B4, and E4; see Figure 3 and Tables A1 and A2). The final scale for constraints on women’s participation in sports (after confirmatory factor analysis) is shown in the Appendix.

Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) values

The parameters reflecting the reliability, authenticity, and rationality of data for step 2 are shown in Table 3 and prove the reliability of the constraints model.

Table 3.

Values of Parameters From the Amos Model (Step 2).

Parameter	Value	Standard value
GFI: goodness-of-fit index	0.974	>0.90
IFI: incremental fit index	0.927	>0.90
CFI: comparative fit index	0.921	>0.90
RMSEA: root mean square error of approximation	0.022	<0.08
χ²/df: difference of chi-square and degree of freedom	1.3	<2.0

Correlation of Factors and Sub-Dimensions in the Constraints Model

In addition to the above values, which show the accuracy of the data after eliminating certain factors and sub-dimensions, we also stabilized the model by establishing the correlation between factors or between factors and their sub-dimensions. The number between the two factors on the arrow in Figure 3 indicates the correlation of these factors. This number is proportional to the correlation, that is, the larger the number, the greater the correlation. The results show that there are interrelationships between the main factors and their sub-dimensions. The sub-dimensions of some elements also show correlations (positive or negative) with other factors and/or their sub-dimensions, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4.

Positive and Negative Correlation Between Factors in the Constraints Model.

Positive correlation	Negative correlation
A with B	A with D and E
A with C	C with D and E
D with E
B3 with C3	D5 with D1
	D4 with E1
	F1 with G1

Tables 5 and 6 describe the extent to which these factors were significantly correlated with each other. In the last column of Table 6, the factors marked with three asterisks indicate that the two factors are related at a 0.01 level, which means that the two factors are significantly correlated in 99% of cases. Some of these factors were positively correlated, while others were negatively correlated. Meanwhile, no asterisk symbols are used in Table 5, as these factors were independent and did not affect each other.

Table 5.

Covariances (Group 1 – Default Model).

Factor/sub-dimension			Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	p Value
Sports_facilities	<–>	Religion	0.048	0.05	0.965	.335
Sports_facilities	<–>	Family_values	−0.064	0.034	−1.922	.055
Sports_facilities	<–>	Economic	−0.145	0.046	−3.144	.002
Sports_facilities	<–>	Gender	−0.05	0.045	−1.115	.265
Sports_facilities	<–>	Politics	0.046	0.036	1.29	.197
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Gender	−0.024	0.035	−0.667	.505
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Politics	0.079	0.03	2.67	.008
Religion	<–>	Gender	−0.011	0.047	−0.224	.823
Religion	<–>	Politics	0.014	0.035	0.398	.691
Economic	<–>	Gender	−0.033	0.039	−0.861	.389
Economic	<–>	Politics	−0.072	0.031	−2.335	.02
Gender	<–>	Politics	0.02	0.035	0.568	.57
Family_values	<–>	Gender	0.02	0.029	0.711	.477
Family_values	<–>	Politics	0.034	0.023	1.442	.149
e13	<–>	e28	0.234	0.079	2.972	.003

Table 6.

Covariances of Significant Factors (Group 1 – Default Model).

Factor/sub-dimension			Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	p Value
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Sports_facilities	0.158	0.047	3.341	***
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Religion	0.145	0.043	3.332	***
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Family_values	−0.15	0.038	−3.915	***
Ethos_of_college_PE	<–>	Economic	−0.142	0.038	−3.706	***
Religion	<–>	Family_values	−0.185	0.044	−4.189	***
Religion	<–>	Economic	−0.342	0.053	−6.453	***
Family_values	<–>	Economic	0.173	0.039	4.412	***
e11	<–>	e15	0.316	0.089	3.551	***
e18	<–>	e22	−0.22	0.062	−3.562	***
e21	<–>	e23	−0.304	0.08	−3.798	***
e31	<–>	e27	−0.561	0.092	−6.13	***

***

p < .001.

Given the results in Tables 5 and 6, the correlation between the above factors merits further explanation, which is provided in the following sub-sections.

Correlation Between Factors/Sub-Dimensions

Correlation between factor A and factors B and C

A correlation was found between factors A (ethos of college regarding physical education) and B (sports facilities and equipment), with a strong and directly proportional relationship between them. It was not surprising to find a direct relationship between factors A and C (religion and culture). More than 90% of Pakistan’s population follows Islamic ideology, and Pakistan is one of the most populous Muslim countries. Therefore, there are many religious and traditional teachers in the country who strongly oppose mixing of the sexes and female students wearing short or tight clothes for sports activities. Some of these leaders argue that Islam does not allow females to participate in sports, which is why they do not support female students participating in any sporting activities.

Correlation between factors D and E

Factors D (family values regarding physical education) and E (economic issues) were also found to be related. As discussed earlier, one of the reasons why many parents do not allow women to participate in sports is a lack of economic resources, which is directly or indirectly related to family income. Many parents in Pakistan find it difficult to meet their basic needs. For such families, getting women to participate in sports (and spending the required money to do so) is bottom of their list of priorities. Due to such financial constraints, parents unsurprisingly neglect support for female sports participation.

Correlation between sub-dimensions B3 and C3

A correlation was found between B3 (“Some sporting facilities are far from home; I worry about security on the way”) and C3 (“Due to religious extremists and society’s influential persons”). Indeed, upon closer examination, every sub-dimension is related to some degree to religious and cultural limitations. This result is not difficult to explain. Due to extreme religious and cultural limitations, new members of society or the government do not take initiative to provide adequate facilities for female sports participation, which explains the correlation between sub-dimensions B3 and C3 (see Figure 3 and Tables A1 and A2).

Discussion and Conclusions

Despite the physical, mental, and social development benefits of sports participation, many people fail to frequently participate in such activities, especially women (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1993; Shaw, 1994; Shaw et al., 1991). With the help of a statistical model, the present study offers a more comprehensive understanding of the reasons (constraints) underlying the limited (or non-existent) participation of female students in sports activities in Pakistan (a Muslim country). Some factors were also found to be corelated with each other, such as factors A and B (see Tables A1 and A2), indicating that if the headmaster believes physical education or sports to be important for females and students, he/she will focus on providing appropriate facilities, and vice versa. If educational facilities increase, female sports participation will also increase. The survey responses obtained from 687 female students from eight different female colleges in four cities of Pakistan were sufficient to answer the research questions of this study and fill existing gaps in the literature by providing a constraints model for Pakistani female students in sports participation. We used Amos 24 to construct a statistical constraints model. In addition, with the help of Amos 24, we were able to filter data to eliminate problems/samples/factors that had little or no impact on Pakistani female students’ participation in sports. This model also allowed us to explore the correlation between influencing factors, as well as establish GFI values. In the process of establishing the constraint model with Amos 24, in step 1, adequate reliability was not established (see Figure 2 and Table 2). Therefore, the second step of confirmatory factor analysis was carried out using the following rules for the elimination of factors and sub-dimensions:

Pakistani female students did not consider these factors to be a significant constraint to sports participation;

Low path coefficient; and/or

Modification index values of less than 10.

This process resulted in the elimination of 1 influencing factor and 14 different sub-dimensions (see Figure 3 and Table 3), leaving the model with 7 of 8 influencing factors and 19 of 33 sub-dimensions. Subsequently, the reliability of model was established. To stabilize the constraint model, we emphasized the correlations between certain factors or sub-dimensions. Indeed, every dimension was found to have a correlation with the others because the factors are interrelated within the concept of feminism. The sub-dimensions of some elements also showed a correlation (positive or negative) with other elements and/or with their sub-dimensions.

Constructive Suggestions for Implementation

In conclusion, based on the results of the present study’s results, we suggest some measurable steps that could be taken to increase the participation of Pakistani female students in physical activities:

Support extracurricular activities, especially sporting events, involving skilled female trainers/expert coaches.

The government should provide funds to the sports sector to improve students’ sporting facilities (especially those for females), and efforts should be taken to ensure that women hold more major administrative positions.

Unwritten and misleading rules regarding the Islamic religion should be vigorously challenged; Islam it is not an anti-sports religion. According to Malcolm et al. (2010), media has failed to present a correct picture of Islam (i.e., that, it is not an anti-sports religion).

Parents should be made aware of the benefits of sports for females. Only after acquiring this knowledge will such parents allow and/or encourage their female family members to participate in sports, irrespective of whether males are stronger than females.

Pakistani female students should learn feminist theory; in this male-dominated society, women should defend their rights, including those on sports fields.

Free games should be held to reduce participation costs, possibly through the use of sponsorships.

Last, but not least, Jackson et al. (1993), Kay and Jackson (1991), and Scott (1991) proposed a negotiating concept to explain how to overcome these constraints. According to the observations of the authors, constraints do not necessarily lead to non-participation; conversely, constraints may be overcome or negotiated. Researchers have identified strategies and resources that female students can use to negotiate against constraints on sports participation. For example, Scott (1991) found that bridge players who obtained information about new opportunities managed their time better and developed new skills. Kay and Jackson (1991) found that, when faced with financial problems, subjects saved money and found cheaper opportunities. When faced with a lack of time, people spent less time on housework and reduced their time at work.

Limitations and Strengths of This Study

This study has several limitations. Due the sensitivity of the topic among female colleges in Pakistan, some factors (especially related to religion and feminism) could not be included. The sample of college students, moreover, may not be representative of the female Pakistani population. Despite these limitations, the present study provides conclusions that are especially valuable in highlighting which factors were considered by female students to impede their participation in sports in different cities of Pakistan while providing a statistical model of constraints. One fascinating question for a future study would be to explore how the conflict between religion and feminist theory could impact the participation of female students in a Pakistani context.

Footnotes

We thank the participants for taking part in this research and making this study possible. This paper is related to the first author’s (R.A.L) PhD thesis project. We conducted this study in order to better understand Pakistani female students’ participation in sports through the development of a statistical model of constraints. Our audience may also wish to read previously published papers related to this project ( Laar,2018;Laar et al.,2020;Laar,Shi,& Ashraf,2019;

). We are also extremely grateful to the reviewers for reading and providing constructive feedback on earlier articles related to this project.

Author Note

This research was conducted while Miao Wang was at Faculty of Environment and Life,Beijing University of Technology 100124,China. She is now at International Office,Beijing University of Technology 100124,China and may be contacted at 13041284985@163.com .

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Thestudy was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Hubei Normal University.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study in written form.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to confidentiality and ethical research issues.

ORCID iD

Rizwan Ahmed Laar

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Restrictions on Pakistani Female Students’ Participation in Sports: A Statistical Model of Constraints

Abstract

Keywords

Background

Review of the Literature

Methods

Results

Process of Designing the Statistical Constraints Model

Elimination of main factors

Elimination of sub-dimensions

Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) values

Correlation of Factors and Sub-Dimensions in the Constraints Model

Correlation Between Factors/Sub-Dimensions

Correlation between factor A and factors B and C

Correlation between factors D and E

Correlation between sub-dimensions B3 and C3

Discussion and Conclusions

Constructive Suggestions for Implementation

Limitations and Strengths of This Study

Footnotes

Author Note

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

Data Availability Statement

ORCID iD

References