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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to assess the implementation success of strategic information systems planning (SISP) in Ghanaian organizations. The study adopted the qualitative approach and interviewed 20 managers from large organizations in diverse sectors and used content analysis in analyzing the data. The results indicate that the success of SISP depends largely on the Alignment of an organization’s Business Strategy to its IT Strategy, the Awareness of Top Management to utilize SISP in strategic planning, the Cooperation of all the functional units/levels of management in utilizing IS in their operations and the Capabilities of the employees in the firm. Findings further suggest that the available resources of the firms also play a key role in the SISP implementation Success. The study, therefore, concludes that adequate resources in terms of highly skilled manpower, financial resources, and financial commitment must be made available always to ensure SISP implementation success. In addition, policies should be formulated around these factors to ensure SISP implementation success for organizations that embark on SISP implementation.

Keywords

strategic information systems planning IT strategy business strategy implementation success Ghana

Introduction

With modern organizations digitizing all their business processes for effective and efficient customer service and competing globally in rapidly changing environments (Hovelja et al., 2010; Kitsios & Kamariotou, 2019), the need to implement Strategic Information Systems Planning (SISP) is tenable to remain competitive (Yang et al., 2020). SISP has been identified as a key to the success of most organizations that implement it (Owusu and Broni, 2020; Hovelja et al., 2013), especially with the alignment between the business strategy and the Information Technology (IT) strategy (Brown & Brown, 2011; Kitsios & Kamariotou, 2019; Venkatesan & Sridhar, 2021). Thus, businesses strive to achieve a common understanding and interpretation of the business strategy and IT strategy with management implementing SISP. However, for organizations to have a meaningful impact through SISP, the implementation should be successful (Yang, 2017).

Given that Information Systems (IS)/IT is a key necessity for all facets of business operations (Guo, 2019), SISP is a critical process for organizational success (Wallace, 2013; Yang et al., 2020). SISP is seen as a major decision-making process that facilitates IS/IT business goals to be achieved (Hung et al., 2016; Peppard et al., 2014). Yet, studies (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019a) indicate that achieving the successful implementation of SISP is not a straightforward exercise as it depends on several factors not only from the technological perspective but management and environmental factors also play a key role (Owusu, 2020; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b).

Nevertheless, a scan of the literature indicates that whilst there exist a plethora of studies that have looked at SISP implementation factors (Hovelja et al., 2010; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2018; Owusu & Broni, 2020; Rangga et al., 2017; Yaokumah et al., 2022), there is still limited literature that has assessed the implementation success of SISP and is even worse when it comes to sub-Saharan African countries. Most of the studies (Grafia & Bertumen, 2019; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b; Kitsios et al., 2020; Sharma & Behl, 2020) have focused on SISP implementation without any underpinning theory. Other studies (Owusu & Broni, 2020; Yaokumah et al., 2022) have used theories and models such as Earl and Lederer, and Sethi’s approaches to SISP development, Critical Success Factors (CSFs), and Resource-Based View (RBV) without a focus on the implementation success. Thus, this calls for more theorization in the evaluation of SISP success which is lacking in the literature. Also, most of the studies were done in different geographic contexts with most of them in Eastern Europe and Asia. In the context of Ghana, three studies about SISP were found. Whilst Owusu and Broni (2020) and Yaokumah et al. (2022) focused on identifying the CSFs for SISP implementation in Ghanaian organizations, Ankrah (2016) rather focused on strategic issues in IS planning from the Ghanaian Banks’ perspective. Thus, no study in Ghana has focused on the implementation success of SISP. Meanwhile, a lot of IT investments are being done in all sectors of the economy (Maciulyte-Sniukiene & Butkus, 2020). In order not to lose these investments, there is a need to investigate the SISP implementation success of Ghanaian organizations to ascertain if best practices in terms of business and IT alignment are adhered to. Again, most of the existing studies were done through a quantitative survey method. Therefore, in the context of Ghana where there is a dearth of literature, exploring the phenomenon through a qualitative approach will give more insights into the SISP success factors in Ghana for theorisation.

Consequently, with Ghana obtaining lower-middle-income status, many organizations both small, medium, and large (public and private), as well as multinational companies, abound in the economy. Most of these organizations have implemented and are implementing diverse digital platforms and services for their operations and their teeming clientele. For instance, in the public sector, the Government of Ghana (GoG) has embarked on several digitalization projects to improve the services it renders to the citizens (Owusu & Broni, 2020). These include paperless port operations (Ports and Harbours), National Digital Property Addressing System (Ghana Post GPS), e-procurement, the integrated e-immigration system (Ghana Immigration Service), e-registrar, e-justice, e-parliament, e-cabinet, and smart workplaces, among others (http://www.eservices.gov.gh/). However, the success of these implementations depends largely on the SISP plans they have in place and if such plans were successfully implemented.

It is, therefore, necessary to carry out a study like this to ascertain the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian organizations to fill the gap that exists in the literature. This study, consequently, aims to assess the SISP implementation success of Ghanaian organizations.

The study seeks:

To assess the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian firms.

To investigate if resource availability moderates the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian firms.

The significance of the study is in three dimensions: contribution to literature, policy, and practice. In terms of literature, this study contributes to the existing body of knowledge about SISP implementation success, especially from developing economies (sub-Saharan African) contexts where there is a dearth of literature. In terms of policy, the outcome of this study informs policymakers as to what to do in terms of their planning for SISP implementation success in Ghanaian organizations. For practice, managers will be able to identify key areas they should focus on when it comes to their SISP implementation success.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the next section introduces readers to the literature review comprising SISP concepts and the conceptual framework. This is followed by the methodology, analysis, discussions, and finally conclusion with implications and limitations.

Literature Review

In this section, the author introduces the readers to the concept of SISP, its implementation challenges, and its success factors for this study.

The Concept of SISP

SISP has gained a lot of popularity in the literature over the years due to its benefits when it comes to IT projects’ success (Guo, 2019) and alignment with business strategy. The literature review “reveals that inadequate strategic information system planning (SISP) is one of the main reasons for low deployment success rates of IT deployment projects and, thus, one of the current critical IT management issues” (Hovelja et al., 2013, p. 465). Therefore, the success of SISP is key to most organizations deriving the necessary benefits from the alignment of their IT with their business strategy. Hovelja et al. (2010, p. 26) define SISP as “a continuous learning process, encompassing the IS/IT strategy formulation and implementation activities, in which various internal and external (environmental) stakeholders tightly cooperate to assure maximum utilization of IT to achieve the sustainable economic success of the enterprise.”Lederer and Sethi (1992a, p. 25) defined SISP as “the process of creating a long-range plan of computer-based applications to enable an organization to achieve its goals.” This definition stems from their earlier definition of SISP as “the process of identifying a portfolio of computer-applications that will assist an organization in executing its business plans and realizing its business goals” (Lederer & Sethi, 1992b, p. 446).

In synthesizing these definitions, the key concepts are about an organization having long-term planning regarding efficient and effective use of technology to achieve its strategic goals.

SISP has been identified to have many benefits when effectively implemented and can lead organizations to have a competitive edge (Alshubaily & Altameem, 2017; Owusu & Broni, 2020; Yang et al., 2020 ). In the literature, some of the identified benefits of SISP include it helping organizations to use Information Systems (IS) in innovative ways to build barriers against new entrants, alter the basis of competition, create new products, build in switching costs, or change the balance of power in supplier relationships (Porter, 1985). Other benefits of SISP include the promotion of innovation and creativity. SISP may employ idea-generating methods such as brainstorming, value chain analysis, or the customer resource life cycle (Lederer & Sethi, 1992a).

SISP Success Factors

Kamariotou and Kitsios (2020, p. 4) defined SISP success as “the level to which the aims of the SISP process have been realized.” They asserted further that Alignment, Analysis, Collaboration, and Capabilities are the four dimensions of the concept of SISP success (Segars & Grover, 1998).

However, the factors of SISP implementation vary in the literature. Most of these are based on studies that used CSFs to evaluate the implementation factors of SISP (Owusu & Broni, 2020; Hovelja et al., 2010; Rishi & Goyal, 2008; Yaokumah et al., 2022). In the same vein, the implementation success of SISP also varies (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2020), and the review of literature on frameworks/models on SISP success revealed that some studies have utilized a wide perspective such as SISP prescription and CSFs (Bechor et al., 2010). Other studies (Basu et al., 2002) have used a limited viewpoint of some organizational constructs such as inter-group interactions, and organizational commitment. Thus, it can be concluded that no single consensus exists when it comes to organizational constructs for SISP success.

Therefore, based on the Resource-Based Theory (RBT), and the four dimensions of SISP Success (Segars & Grover, 1998; Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1987), this study developed a conceptual framework to assess the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian organizations.

Related Studies

This section presents the related studies as outlined in Table 1.

Table 1.

Studies of SISP Implementation Success.

Article	Theory	Methodology	Context	Findings
Kamariotou and Kitsios (2019a)	None	Survey questionnaires with factor analysis	Greece	Findings indicate that “IS executives are not aware of defining goals for the IS development”
Kamariotou and Kitsios (2019b)	None	Survey questionnaires with factor analysis	Greece	Findings indicate that “IS executives are not aware of analysing the external IT environment and evaluating opportunities for IS development”
Kamariotou and Kitsios (2020)	None	Survey questionnaires with factor analysis	Greece	The findings of the paper indicate that “IS executives do not focus on the analysis of the external environment and the evaluation of opportunities for IS development. In addition, the lack of formulation of the IT strategy creates inefficient and unsuccessful IT projects”
Newkirk and Lederer (2006)	None	Survey questionnaires with SEM	USA	The findings indicate that “in general, greater SISP comprehensiveness predicted greater SISP success. Greater changeability and unpredictability, however, weakened the impact of such SISP on success. On the other hand, as the environment became more competitive, more comprehensive SISP led to greater SISP success”
Yang et al. (2020)	None	Survey questionnaires with SEM	South Korea	The findings of this study suggest that “facilitators positively affect successful SISP through business and IT alignment. It also demonstrates that effective SISP has a positive effect on organizational outcomes by ensuring organizational capabilities and IT infrastructure flexibility”
Kamariotou and Kitsios (2019b)	None	Survey questionnaires with factor analysis	Greece	The results indicate that “if executives wish to be able to implement Strategy Conception and Strategy Implementation with greater agility than now they should implement them with greater meticulousness. Furthermore, planners should focus on the analysis of current business systems IS, and the business environment. If these elements are comprehensible, the outcome of the planning process can be improved and the horizon, as well as the cost of the project, can be reduced”
Kitsios and Kamariotou (2019)	None	Survey questionnaires with regression analysis	Greece	The results of the analysis “support research hypotheses that IS executives do not focus on Strategic Awareness and they are not aware of analysing the external IT environment and evaluating opportunities for IS development. This finding is crucial because it confirms that senior executives in SMEs do not invest in emergent technologies and cannot fit with the strategic, structural, and environmental dynamics. Furthermore, an important obstacle is that IT managers do not focus on organizing the planning team. Employees who will participate in the development of IS should have IT skills, motivation to develop effective IS, and cooperation skills”

As shown in Table 1, literature regarding the implementation success is scanty, and even so, these are all done in developed countries. In addition, the major theories underpinning these studies are not indicated as the constructs are mostly derived from literature. Again, most of the existing studies are done with a quantitative approach. Therefore, investigating this work through a qualitative approach in a developing country context where there is a dearth of literature is apt. This will help enrich the IS literature regarding SISP implementation success from a developing economy context.

Theoretical Framework

The theories underpinning this study are the Resource-Based Theory (Barney, 1991), and the four dimensions of SISP implementation success (Segars & Grover, 1998; Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1987). Segars and Grover (1998) built on the works of Venkatraman and Ramanujam (1987) to develop a four-dimensional instrument to measure the success of SISP. Their four-dimensional instrument comprises alignment, analysis, cooperation, and capabilities.

Thus, this study developed a conceptual framework to assess the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian organizations based on these theories.

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework for this study. The conceptual framework explains that the success of SISP depends on the Alignment, Analysis, Cooperation, and Capabilities planning of the organization. However, literature (Barney, 1991) also shows that SISP success usually, also depends on the resources the organization has. As a result, Resources Availability is used as a moderating variable for this study.

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework.

Alignment

Alignment refers to the results of the linkage of the IS strategy and business strategy (Newkirk & Lederer, 2006; Segars & Grover, 1998). A basic initial point is a need for alignment of business/organizational needs, what is done with IT, and plans for human resources, organizational structures, and processes (Hovelja et al., 2010; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b). Lack of alignment can result in IT evaluation practice becoming separated from business needs and plans on the one hand, and from organizational realities that can influence IT implementation and subsequent effectiveness on the other (Brown & Brown, 2011). Measures that fall under alignment include understanding the strategic priorities of top management, identifying the IT-related opportunities to support the strategic direction of the firm, and assessing the strategic importance of emerging technologies(Hovelja et al., 2013; Manoharan et al., 2015; Segars & Grover, 1998). Thus, aligning the business strategy of the firm to that of the IS strategy is highly essential for the success of the firm (Yang et al., 2020). In a study to assess the relationship between SISP and facilitators to achieve successful business outcomes in South Korean organizations, Yang et al. (2020) find that facilitators positively affect successful SISP through business and IT alignment. In another study, Kitsios and Kamariotou (2019) explored Strategic IT Alignment and Business Performance in SMEs where their findings indicate that IT appears to be an important issue in improving the alignment between IT strategy and organizational structure. So, firms should strive to ensure alignment of their business strategy to their IS strategy is done efficiently in order to achieve success.

Based on the discussions above, it is proposed that:

Proposition 1: Effective and efficient IT Strategy and Business Strategy Alignment will lead to the Success of SISP

Analysis

Analysis refers to the results of the study of the organization’s processes, procedures, and technologies (Newkirk & Lederer, 2006; Segars & Grover, 1998). Firms that analyse their business processes and procedures and strive to improve them to the satisfaction of all stakeholders achieve success (Hoque et al., 2016). In addition, as business nurtures and the need for modern technologies to meet the growing needs of the firm increases, there is the need to also analyse the technologies and improve upon them (Brown & Brown, 2011). Measures that fall under analysis include understanding the information needs of the organizational subunits, monitoring of internal business needs and the capability of IS to meet those needs, and understanding the dispersion of data, applications, and other technologies throughout the firm, among others (Segars & Grover, 1998). Prudent business processes, procedures, and the management of technologies are highly essential to the success of a business (Hovelja et al., 2013; Manoharan et al., 2015; Segars & Grover, 1998). In a study to assess how managers use IS for strategy implementation in Agritourism SMEs in Greece, Kamariotou and Kitsios (2020) find out that IS executives do not focus on the analysis of the external environment and the evaluation of opportunities for IS development. In another study, Kamariotou and Kitsios (2019b, p. 204) evaluated the Strategic Planning and Information Systems Success in Greek SMEs where their findings indicate “planners should focus on the analysis of current business systems IS and business environment” which can lead to the project cost reduced. Therefore, firms should strive to implement efficient business processes and procedures, and technologies that will help them achieve success by analysing their environments both internally and externally.

Based on the discussions above, it is proposed that:

Proposition 2: Effective and efficient IT Strategy and Business Strategy Analysis will lead to the Success of SISP

Cooperation

Cooperation refers to the results of the general agreement about development priorities, implementation schedules, and managerial responsibilities (Newkirk & Lederer, 2006; Segars & Grover, 1998). Teamwork and cooperation among all the departments are highly essential for the success of the business (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b). Thus, cooperation between all management levels among the various functional units should be a top priority for management in order to achieve success. Measures that fall under cooperation include avoiding the overlapping development of major systems, maintaining open lines of communication with other departments, and developing clear guidelines of managerial responsibility for plan implementation (Segars & Grover, 1998). In a study to assess the Information Systems Planning and Success in SMEs in Greece, Kamariotou and Kitsios (2019b, p. 209) find out that “the selection of employees who will participate in the development of IS is an important process because managers have to select employees with IT skills, motivation to develop effective IS and cooperation skills.” Their findings also indicate that “IS executives can define priorities, increase the cooperation among the IS team and provide guidelines to support the effectiveness of IS plans.” In another study, Kitsios and Kamariotou (2019, p. 7) explored Strategic IT Alignment and Business Performance in SMEs in Greece. Their findings indicate that “employees who will participate in the development of IS should have IT skills, motivation to develop effective IS and cooperation skills.” This means effective teamwork and efficient planning are key to the success of firms. Thus, firms should strive to implement efficient teamwork to achieve success.

Based on the discussions above, it is proposed that:

Proposition 3: Effective and efficient IT Strategy and Business Strategy Cooperation will lead to the Success of SISP

Capabilities

Capabilities refers to the improvement in the potential of the planning system (Newkirk & Lederer, 2006; Segars & Grover, 1998). The competencies of employees regarding the business models they operate are key to the success of businesses (Pan et al., 2015). Thus, firms must strive to improve their capacity building from time to time to be abreast with the current technologies that can aid them to remain competitive. Measures that fall under capabilities include the ability to identify key problem areas, the ability to identify new business opportunities, the ability to understand the business and its information needs, and the ability to gain cooperation among user groups for IS plans, among others (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b; Segars & Grover, 1998). In recent years, it has been established that due to the advancement of technologies, businesses strive to develop digital capabilities to meet their customers’ needs, lower the ambiguity of the business environment and enhance competitive advantage (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b). In a study to explore the relationship between SISP and facilitators to achieve successful business outcomes in South Korean organizations, Yang et al. (2020, p. 126) find out that “effective SISP has a positive effect on organizational outcomes by ensuring organizational capabilities and IT infrastructure flexibility.” Also, improvement in the dynamic capabilities of the employees is key to the firm’s success. Thus, firms must strive to improve their capabilities to remain successful.

Based on the discussions above, it is proposed that:

Proposition 4: Effective and efficient IT Strategy and Business Strategy Capabilities will lead to the Success of SISP

Resources Availability

Emanating from the RBT, a firm’s resources are divided into two as assets and capabilities (Barney, 1991; Penrose, 1995). These resources are considered their strengths which they can use to conceive of and implement their strategies to improve their efficiency and effectiveness (Barney, 1991). Grant (1991) classified assets as tangible, intangible, and personnel-based resources. Tangible assets include the financial capital and the physical assets of the firm such as plants, equipment, and stocks of raw materials (Azamat et al., 2023). Intangible assets comprise of brand image, reputation, and product quality (Ren et al., 2023). Personnel-based (or organizational) assets include managerial commitment, technical know-how, organizational culture, knowledge and skills, and employee training loyalty (Bharadwaj, 2000; Varela-Neira et al., 2023). Barney (1991) and Lima et al. (2023) asserted that a firm’s resources must be heterogeneous and immobile for it to create and sustain a competitive advantage or achieve performance beyond that of its competitors. They further explained that such resources should have additional attributes as rare, valuable, imperfectly imitable, and not strategically substitutable or non-substitutable. Thus, for SISP to be implemented successfully, the resources of the firm also play a key role. Therefore, this study used Resources Availability as a moderating variable to ascertain if indeed it moderates the relationship between the Alignment, Analysis, Cooperation, and Capabilities dimensions and that of SISP Success.

Based on the discussions above, it is proposed that:

Proposition 5a: A Firm’s Available Resources will moderate the correlation between effective and efficient Planning Alignment and the Success of SISP

Proposition 5b: A Firm’s Available Resources will moderate the correlation between effective and efficient Planning Analysis and the Success of SISP

Proposition 5c: A Firm’s Available Resources will moderate the correlation between effective and efficient Planning Cooperation and the Success of SISP

Proposition 5d: A Firm’s Available Resources will moderate the correlation between effective and efficient Planning Capabilities and the Success of SISP

Methodology

Research Design and Approach

This study seeks to explore the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian organizations in the first instance and also examines if available resources moderate the success of SISP implementation in the organizations. Multiple case study method was used to enable an in-depth understanding and deliver a causative explanation of the phenomenon from the actor’s standpoint. Thus, the case study sought to give an interpretation of the structures and mechanisms that relate to producing the outcome in question (Wynn & William, 2012). Via the above perspective, the study theorizes the phenomenon of SISP implementation success through an exploratory approach to capture, describe, and document the enablers and inhibitors using existing theory (Von Krogh et al., 2012). As indicated by Walsham (1993) and Yin (2009), case study research has no universally accepted number of suitable cases; thus, a case study can be a single case or multiple cases. This study was thus based on a multiple case study approach to assist deliver important insight into the factors that lead to SISP implementation success in Ghanaian organizations. This approach is justified in the fact that the rationality of the case is reliant on cogency and plausibility of the logical reasoning, and not based on the number of cases or statistical considerations (Walsham, 1993).

This research was based on twenty (20) large organizations in Ghana that have implemented SISP and using it in their operations. This number is considered to be adequately centred on Guest et al.’s (2006) recommendations that “saturation occurred within the first 12 interviews.” Thus, using 20 cases is seen to be sufficient. The main method of data collection was via semi-structured interviews. This was to guide in unearthing how SISP has been integrated into the operations and activities of the organizations. The cases were strategically chosen to improve their external validity. Yet, the selection process did not rely on statistical consideration but was based on the number of years the firms have been in existence and the background of their employees. Thus, it was considered that the organizations have first-hand experience and an in-depth understanding of the topic and, consequently, can deliver insightful comments that are appropriate to achieve the purpose of the study.

Since there was no existing instrument that can be readily adapted for this study, an Interview Guide was developed based on existing literature on SISP implementation assessments. The questions were adapted from (Kitsios & Kamariotou, 2019b; Newkirk & Lederer, 2006; Segars & Grover, 1998; Yang et al., 2020) and modified to suit the context of this study. The Interview Guide was tested for its content validity with a pilot study of two senior scholars and one practitioner with experience in SISP. Their advice and guidance led to the removal of questions that seem ambiguous.

Data Collection Method

In all, data was collected from a sample size of 20 participants, 13 males and 7 females with ages ranging from 32 to 57 years who have diverse experiences in and high qualifications in their areas of expertise. Participants include IS Managers, IT Managers, a Chief Information Technology Officer (CITO), Project Managers, a Senior Programmer, an Executive Director, an IT Auditor, a Systems Administrator, a Finance Director, and Operations Managers, among others. The in-depth interviews were done through face-to-face and, in some cases, via telephone due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The interview length was between 45 min and 1 hr. The interviews were recorded and transcribed in their entirety for ensuing content analysis (Weber, 1990). The participants’ profiles and their industries/sectors are listed in Table 2.

Table 2.

Profile of Participants.

Identification	Age	Gender	Qualification	Industry/Sector	Experience	Profession
Pilvoro	44	F	MBA IS	Oil and gas	8 years	IS manager
Special Ray	42	M	MSc IT	Insurance	10 years	IT manager
Guy Tee	54	M	MBA IS	Education	18 years	Chief information technology officer (CITO)
Mirror	50	F	MBA project management	Telecommunications	12 years	Project manager
Mantse	32	F	MSc software engineering	Financial	7 years	Senior programmer
Nsroma	37	M	MBA IS	Health	5 years	Executive director
Bipolee	57	M	MBA IS	Public sector	9 years	IT auditor
Silva	49	M	MSc ICT	Retail supermarket	13 years	Systems administrator
Gasco	37	M	MSc IT	Insurance	5 years	IT manager
Babs	41	M	MBA IS	Education	6 years	Deputy Chief information technology officer (CITO)
Mond	46	F	MBA operations management	Telecommunications	8 years	Operations manager
Bee	32	F	MSc software engineering	Financial institution	4 years	Database administrator
Abe	47	M	MBA Finance	Health	8 years	HR director
Cee	49	M	MBA HR	Retail supermarket	10 years	HR director
Cutie	48	M	MBA operations management	Oil and gas	10 years	Operations manager
Tay	39	M	MBA IS	Education	9 years	Network administrator
Mens	34	F	MSc Finance	Financial institution	4 years	Financial analyst
Sugar	40	F	MBA HR	Telecommunications	8 years	HR director
Abe	49	M	MBA Finance	Health	12 years	Finance director
Salt	50	M	MBA operations management	Mining	10 years	Operations manager

Data Analysis

The collected data was analysed through content analysis. According to Patton (2002), content analysis is a process of reducing and structuring text by identifying, coding, and classifying it into categories. The content analysis was conducted via the conventional manual approach. At the initial stage, the researcher read the transcription repetitively to ascertain various themes in the transcribed data. Additionally, each respondent’s data were analysed word by word to uncover the different answers and to capture coding schemes, emergent categories, and subcategories that were derived directly from the data.

The data were further transcribed and put into five themes per the research framework. They are alignment, analysis, cooperation, and capability as well as resources. The section below provides the detailed results of the interviews conducted with the participants.

Findings and Discussions

Alignment

Regarding the alignment dimension, four questions were asked.

a. The first question asked was: Do you understand the strategic priorities of top management?

From the case finding, it was established that the participants understood the strategic priorities of top management. This was evident in the data collected and transcribed.

“Yes: Top-level managers are responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They develop goals, strategic plans, and company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources.” Mantse (Senior Programmer).

b. The second question asked was: Do you align IS strategies with the strategic plan of the organization?

The finding also suggests that many organizations align IS strategies with the strategic plan of the organization. Most of the participants agree with the fact their organizations align IS strategies as a result of the advantages that are associated with the alignment process.

This is what some of the participants had to say:

“Yes; First of all, IS-related changes are communicated organization-wide. In addition, in our company, IS strategies are always aligned with those of the parent Organization”. Gasco (IT Manager).

Guy Tee (CITO) said: “Yes: Strategic management is the comprehensive collection of ongoing activities and processes that organizations use to systematically coordinate and align resources and actions with mission, vision, and strategy throughout our company”.

c. The third question asked was: Do you adapt the goals/objectives of IS to changing goals/objectives of the organization?

During the adaption of IS goals, organizations experience some level of change. IS which can no longer support the new business direction may be replaced by one that supports or enables the new strategy. In supporting with evidence:

Mirror (Project Manager) said: “Yes; as business requirements change or as needs of the business change, IS which can no longer support the new business direction may be replaced for one that supports or enables the new strategy.”

Again, Bipole (IT Auditor) said: “Yes, goals and objectives help drive business growth and profitability. They focus each individual’s efforts on what is most important to achieve. Each Department Manager creates objectives for their departments and assigns the responsibility for achieving them.”

d. The fourth question was: Do you identify IT-related opportunities to support the strategic direction of the firm?

The finding suggested that IT-related opportunities spring out when there is the proper alignment of SISP with the organization (management). These IT-related opportunities turn to separate the organization from the competitors in the market. These findings suggest that IT-related opportunities are really available and new opportunities keep popping out now and then.

“Yes; some IT-related opportunities that support the strategy of our financial institution are Online Banking, Asset Finance, and Business Loans (A loan in less than 24 hr).” Bee (Database Administrator).

Again, Cutie (Operations Manager) replied: “Yes; we create revenue as we provide IT solutions.”

Tay (Network Administrator) answered: “Yes; previously, physical servers were used as data storage, but the company has shifted to cloud-based servers.”

Thus, the findings from the analysis above clearly indicate that the success of SISP is largely dependent on the alignment of the business strategy with that of the IS strategy. These findings support that of (Kitsios and Kamariotou, 2019b; Yang et al., 2020). Thus, proposition P1 is supported.

Analysis

Similarly, four questions were asked regarding the Analysis dimension.

a. The first question asked was: Do you understand the strategic priorities of top management?

Findings indicate that the strategic priorities of top management are in different forms. Top management is to help drive the organization and achieve its goals and objectives. They ensure there is an inflow of cash, and the strategic plan of the company is achieved in line with the mission and vision of the company.

Special Ray (IT Manager) said: “Yes; Strategy priorities of top management is to help drive the organization and achieve its organizational goals and objectives.”

Bipolee (IT Auditor) responded: “Yes; the short and long-term goals of the company are positioned strategically by the top management to ensure that the values are in alignment with the mission and vision of the firm.”

b. The second question asked was: Do you understand the information needs of organizational subunits?

The findings suggest that the majority of the participants believe in the analysis of the needs of the organizational subunits to help achieve the organizational objectives. Subunits achieve organizational excellence through work productivity and create room for ownership.

Cee (HR Director) replied: “The subunits are the primary workforce of the organization and equipping them with information technology would propel the organization.”

Mantse (Senior Programmer) said: “Depending on the objectives of each unit, IT provides the technology needed. The information needs of the organization are captured in standardized tools developed by the organization and donor partners.”

c. The third question asked was: Do you identify opportunities for internal improvement in business processes through IT?

Again, the findings suggested that business processes through IT help to map, analyse, redesign, and review the processes. This helps to drive business processes for organizational growth. The improvement of the internal business processes will help to also achieve an improved customer experience, reduce cost and response time as well as process efficiency. These help change some activities such as reduction of paperwork, email, and quick chats are encouraged. This means most traditional manual systems are being replaced or changed to digitization. These are some of the responses:

Gasco (IT Manager) said: “Most manual systems in place currently can be digitized”.

Bee (Database Administrator) said: “Using Technology in improving the processes of the department helps to serve customers better and gives accurate data. This is done by carrying out business process improvement surveys with clients, employees, volunteers, and beneficiaries.”

d. The fourth question asked was: Do you monitor internal business needs and the capabilities of IS to meet those needs?

From the findings, it was established that one duty of the top management is to monitor the internal business needs and using the IS to meet those needs. In reality, monitoring is what informs IS investment decisions. For instance,

Pilvoro (IS Manager) said: “An internal assessment through the use of a SWOT analysis or an Internal Factor Analysis tool or matrix helps our company to identify their strengths and weaknesses as against their current IS capabilities to come out with the best strategic options before any final financial commitments are made. Yes, this monitoring is what informs IS investment decisions.”

Thus, the findings from the data analysis above clearly indicate that the success of SISP is largely dependent on firms that analyse their business processes and procedures and strive to improve them to the satisfaction of all stakeholders (Hoque et al., 2016). Also, prudent business processes, procedures, and the management of technologies are highly essential to the success of the business (Hovelja et al., 2013; Manoharan et al., 2015; Segars & Grover, 1998) as the findings indicate. These findings support that of (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019; Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2020). Thus, proposition P2 is supported.

Cooperation

In the same vein, four questions were asked regarding the Cooperation dimension.

a. The first question asked was: Do you avoid the overlapping development of major systems?

From the case finding, it was realized that avoiding the overlapping development of major systems is a very familiar occurrence in organizations. In most cases, when management is not vigilant in their activities, overlapping can occur.

This is what Nsroma (Executive Director) had to say: “No, where the organization can provide the needed support for multiple systems, overlapping is allowed. Otherwise, it is avoided to help the organization zero in on the viability of the system and make the necessary changes.”

b. The second question asked was: Do you achieve a general level of agreement regarding the risks/tradeoffs among system projects?

The findings suggested that there is not always a general level of agreement regarding the risks/trade-offs among system projects.

Mond (Operations Manager) said: “Some departments feel their roles are superior to others and System projects will always differ because of budgetary allocation, time, resources available, and other environmental/external factors.”

c. The third question asked was: Have you maintained open lines of communication with other departments?

From the case finding, it was realized that communication is a key element in the success of an organization or society. Not any kind of communication but an effective one. It was established that there are effective open lines of communication with all departments.

Sugar (HR Director) said: “Yes, as part of creating good and supportive organizational communication, policies have been implemented that address how departments interact, celebrate successes, platforms or channels for communication, and share lessons learned.”

Guy Tee (CITO) had this to say:“Yes, We communicate with the entire departments to see their need for IS concerning the organization’s goals.”

d. The fourth question asked was: Do you coordinate the development efforts of various organizational subunits?

From the analysis, it was evident that there was some form of coordination from the participants, which contributed to the success of the organization.

Silva (Systems Administrator) said: “The various subunits help the organization to grow and therefore the need to coordinate their various efforts in the development of our company.”

Tay (Network Administrator) said:“This is done through departmental capacity assessment and development workshops.”

Thus, the findings from the data analysis above clearly indicate that the success of SISP is largely dependent on teamwork and cooperation among all the departments (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b), with cooperation between all management levels among the various functional units being a top priority for management in order to achieve success as indicated by the findings of this study. This finding supports that of (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b; Kitsios & Kamariotou, 2019). Thus, proposition P3 is supported.

Capabilities

In addition, four questions were asked regarding the Capabilities dimension.

a. The first question asked was: Do you have the ability to identify key problem areas?

From the case finding, the interviewees can identify key problems through various techniques, which help the organization achieve its vision and mission. Some are able to analyse their strength and weaknesses using various techniques. SWOT analysis and PESTLE analysis are common descriptions reported by the findings.

Cee (HR Director) replied: “Within the organizations, these are identified through a careful analysis of strengths and weaknesses using a SWOT analysis tool or an internal Factor Analysis tool to bring out problematic areas. As well as threats that are external to the organization which therefore pose as problems to the organization’s ability to gain a competitive advantage.”

Cutie (Operations Manager) said: “I usually identify problems from our lessons learned or register after project completion which is a form of monitoring, evaluation, and control.”

b. The second question asked was: Do you have the ability to identify new business opportunities?

The findings suggested that the participants are able to identify new business opportunities too. It was evident that they use some form of analytical tools. Again, SWOT and PESTLE analyses are very common in most discussions. Others also use techniques like communication and observation.

Mond (Operations Manager) said: “Through a careful analysis of the organization’s external and competitive business environment the opportunities and threats can be identified and then how weak or strong the strategies are in responding to these factors are assessed and the necessary actions are taken so as to capitalize on the identified opportunities.”

Nsroma (Executive Director) replied: “The new business opportunities can be identified in line with the organizational goals and strategy. Also, through communication and observation.”

c. The third question asked was: Do you have the ability to align IS strategy with organizational strategy?

Again, the findings suggested that the participants had the ability to align IS strategy with organizational strategy. Some of them said in their interview that, in the recent era of technological advancement, aligning business with IS strategy gives you a competitive edge over your rivals. It also creates a healthy relationship with the top-level management who effectively manage the change that comes with the introduction of the IS strategy. This is what some said:

Mirror (Project Manager) said:“In recent times and in the face of technological advancements, the strategic direction of the organization also has a strong focus on Technology in the organization.”

Babs (Deputy CITO) replied: “By looking at the mission statement and long-term strategic plan alongside the IS strategic plan and also by ensuring the IT/IS strategy feeds into responding to the broad organizational goals.”

d. The fourth question asked was: Do you have the ability to anticipate surprises and crises?

The findings also reveal a unique skill of participants anticipating surprises and crises. Various techniques are employed and used efficiently and effectively. These are some of the responses of the interviews.

Bipole (IT Auditor) replied: “A thorough risk assessment is done. By so doing risk is anticipated for, actions outlined in a plan, and execution of these plans takes place in the face of surprises or crisis or when risks occur. All identified risks are captured in a Risk log or register document which serves as a guide for anticipating crises.”

Pilvoro (IS Manager) said: “SWOT AND PESTLE analysis and through the acquisition of knowledge, experiences and a certain level of intuition.”

Thus, the findings from the data analysis above clearly indicate that the success of SISP is largely dependent on the competencies of employees regarding the business models they operate (Pan et al., 2015). Recent development in business environments due to technological advancement requires businesses to develop digital capabilities to meet their customers’ needs, lower the ambiguity of the business environment and enhance competitive advantage (Kamariotou & Kitsios, 2019b) as found in this study. The findings of this study support that of (Yang et al., 2020). Thus, proposition P4 is supported.

Resources Availability

To assess if resources availability affects the implementation success of SISP, two questions were asked as follows:

a. The first question asked was: Can you provide a general overview of resources in your organizations?

Findings from the analysis revealed that all the participants’ organizations have adequate resources in terms of personnel, equipment, and the necessary infrastructure in their sectors. It was also revealed that all the firms are very well-resourced financially which aids them to attract highly skilled manpower and also in adopting and implementing novel technologies.

Special Ray (IT Manager) said: “Our industry requires you to build the necessary infrastructure in terms of equipment and also build the requisite human capacity that will help the firm remains competitive in the ever-changing technological world.”

In addition, Sugar (HR Director) said: “In fact, without the necessary human power, it will be difficult to remain in business. As you know, telecommunications require a lot in terms of infrastructure development as well as the human power to manage them which all requires financial resources.”

Again, Guy Tee (CITO) asserted that: “Gone are the days where things were done mostly manually in higher educational institutions (HEIs). These days, we build robust infrastructure that supports teaching, learning, and research. Our Learning Management System (LMS) helps lecturers manage students with ease, Library Management Systems (LMS) facilitate easy research in terms of getting the necessary resources for research. We also have robust ICT infrastructure providing both wired and wireless Internet connection to faculty, staff, and students on campus and all these require a lot of financial commitment.”

b. The second question asked was: Does the available resource in your organization affects the implementation success of SISP?

The findings from the analysis indicate that indeed without adequate resources, the implementation success of SISP in the organizations was going to be greatly affected. The participants affirm this through their responses.

Babs (Deputy CITO) said: “Indeed without the adequate financial commitment from the government as well as internally generated funds and sometimes funding from some donor agencies, it will have been very difficult for us to attract, retain and build capacity to manage all these ICT resources that we have been able to build through our strategic planning.”

Also, Salt (Operations Manager) said: “With mining, you know our equipment and operational materials are very expensive and require a lot of financial commitment and skillful manpower to manage them. So, with all our strategic planning, we put in a lot of capacity building, consultants among others to help us succeed.”

In addition, Abe (Finance Director) added: “Truly, financial resources and highly skilled manpower is key to the success of SISP implementation.”

Again, Cutie (Operations Manager) said: “The oil sector requires a lot of sophisticated technologies from the upstream to the downstream and all these require a lot of financial commitment and capable manpower. Thus, these are the key enablers for SISP implementation success.”

Thus, the findings from the data analysis above clearly indicate that the success of SISP is largely dependent on the resources available within the firm in terms of financial commitment, skilful manpower with the technical know-how in their various sectors, and the requisite infrastructure (Barney, 1991; Porter, 1985). As SISP is an endeavour that requires a lot of commitment from all levels of management as well as adequate financial resources, the analysis indeed confirms that of (Bharadwaj, 2000). Thus, propositions H5a, H5b, H5c, and H5d are supported.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The main aim of this study was to assess the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian firms in the first instance and also to investigate if resource availability moderates the implementation success of SISP in Ghanaian firms. Through the four dimensions of SISP implementation success and the RBT theory, the findings confirm that the success of SISP indeed depends on the Alignment, Analysis, Cooperation, and Capabilities dimensions. It was also confirmed that the resources available indeed affect the success of SISP implementation. Table 3 gives a summary of the findings and the key themes identified based on the data analysis.

Table 3.

Summary of Key Findings.

Dimension	Key themes identified	Propositions
Alignment	1. Top-level managers aligning their strategic plans with the IS plans of the company.2. Top-level managers aligning the business requirements change with the IS that can currently support or enables the new business goals.The short and long-term goals of the company are positioned strategically by the top management to ensure that the values are in alignment with the mission and vision of the firm	P1—supported
Analysis	1. Business requirements analysis is used to position the strategic priorities of top management to help drive the organization and achieve organizational goals and objectives.Through business requirement analysis such as SWOT analysis, Internal Factor analysis, and surveys with clients, employees, volunteers, beneficiaries, etc., the subunits of the organization are equipped with the necessary IT that would propel the organization to help achieve its goals	P2—supported
Cooperation	1. Discussions and cooperation amongst all the Unit Heads enable the organization to avoid overlapping unless they have the capacity to provide the needed support for multiple systems.2. Discussions and cooperation amongst departments lead to the prioritization of projects because of budgetary allocation, time, resources available, and other environmental/external factors.3. As part of creating good and supportive organizational communication, policies have been implemented that address how departments interact, celebrate successes, platforms, or channels for communication, and share lessons learned.There are constant communications with the entire departments to see their need for IS concerning the organization goals	P3—supported
Capabilities	1. Capabilities within the organizations are identified through a careful analysis of strengths and weaknesses using a SWOT analysis tool or an internal Factor Analysis tool to bring out problematic areas.2. Capabilities for identification of problems from lessons learned or register after project completion through a form of monitoring, evaluation, and control.3. Capacity to do a careful analysis of the organization’s external and competitive business environment resulting in the opportunities and threats identification and then how weak or strong the strategies are in responding to these factors are assessed and the necessary actions are taken so as to capitalize on the identified opportunities.Capacity to do a thorough risk assessment	P4—supported
Resources	1. Highly skilled manpower2. Adequate financial resources and financial commitment3. Top-level management support and commitmentAdequate industry infrastructure in terms of equipment and technologies	P5a, 5b, 5c, 5d—supported

Theoretical Implications

Regarding contributions to the body of knowledge, this study through the use of the SISP Success dimensions (Alignment, Analysis, Cooperation, and Capabilities) as well as the RBT theory (Barney, 1991; Segars & Grover, 1998; Venkatraman & Ramanujam, 1987) has given us more insights from a developing country context where there are gaps in the literature. The theories have helped us unearth that the success of SISP depends largely on the Alignment of an organization’s Business Strategy to its IT Strategy, the Awareness of Top Management to utilize SISP in strategic planning, the Cooperation of all the functional units and levels of management in utilizing IS in their operations, and the Capabilities of the employees in the firm as well as resources availability playing a key role in the SISP implementation Success.

Also, most of the studies regarding SISP success have been done via a quantitative approach. However, through a qualitative approach that this study adopted because of the lack of literature in the developing economies context, a lot of lessons have been learned regarding SISP success with rich insights provided by the study’s participants which also adds to the IS literature.

Policy Implications

Regarding implications for policymakers, this study has provided us with a lot of literature that can help formulate the requisite policies regarding SISP implementation success. The analysis has revealed that for SISP to be successful, there should be adequate resources in terms of infrastructure, skilful manpower, and financial resources. Also, the four SISP success dimensions should be very well taken care of by management. Thus, policies should be formulated around these factors to ensure SISP implementation success for organizations that embark on SISP implementation.

Practical Implications

Concerning implications for practice, managers of organizations embarking on SISP implementation can use this study as a guide which provides most of the necessary factors that should be considered. This will help reduce the implementation failures of SISP in their organizations.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Studies

Although this study theoretically can be generalized, in terms of statistics, the participants used are woefully inadequate. However, regarding qualitative studies, getting rich insights about the phenomenon being studied is the focus and not necessarily the number of samples. So, the 20 participants from different companies in Ghana both public and private, have provided us with a lot of rich insight that can be used as the general issues regarding SISP success implementation in the Ghanaian context theoretically.

With suggestions for future studies, two recommendations are made. First, future studies can do a quantitative study with a large sample size to study the same phenomenon using the themes identified together with other literature for the questionnaire to help validate the findings of this study. Also, other constructs (s) can be added to the SISP Success dimensions to develop a new research framework that can also be studied quantitatively or qualitatively.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Acheampong Owusu

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