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Abstract

International students frequently encounter cultural and language barriers abroad, which can disrupt their integration and negatively impact their academic performance, social well-being, and increase feelings of loneliness and anxiety. In an effort to explore the intricate dynamics between cultural intelligence, linguistic confidence, cross-cultural adaptation, and interpersonal communication competence among international students, this study was conducted in China from October 2023. The sample selection process was the snowball sampling method, resulting in a final sample size of 244 participants who were international students experiencing challenges related to cultural adaptation and language confidence. Data analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling (SEM) in AMOS version 26. The study found that cultural intelligence positively influences cross-cultural adaptation, interpersonal communication competence, and linguistic confidence, with the relationships mediated by cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence. Based on these significant findings, a key recommendation is to implement interventions aimed at enhancing cultural intelligence and interpersonal communication skills among international students. Such proactive measures, facilitated by educational institutions and support services, have the potential to improve international students’ linguistic confidence, reduce feelings of isolation, and alleviate academic anxiety, ultimately their overall study abroad experience.

Keywords

international students cultural intelligence cross-cultural adaptation interpersonal communication competence linguistic confidence

Introduction

In accordance with the definition provided by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), international students are those individuals who, for educational purposes, cross international borders or territorial boundaries and are currently pursuing their studies outside their home country. With the continuous evolution of globalization, the number of individuals choosing to study abroad has been steadily increasing. Between 2015 and 2019, the global population of international students exhibited a consistent upward trend, reaching approximately 6.06 million in 2019. Notably, the average annual growth rate for students in higher education globally stands at a remarkable 4.8% (UNESCO, 2020). Examining the statistics, China, as the world’s third-largest destination for international students, welcomed a total of 492,185 students from 196 countries and regions in 2018 (Lu et al., 2019). This diverse cohort of international students not only enriches China’s educational milieu but also fosters opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and mutual understanding. However, it also comes with challenges, particularly for many international students whose first language (L1) is not Mandarin. Transitioning to using Chinese as the primary language of communication can be daunting for them (Gong et al., 2021). They may struggle with pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension, leading to difficulties in expressing themselves clearly and understanding others. Consequently, they may feel hesitant to engage in verbal communication, whether in academic settings, social interactions, or everyday tasks like ordering food or asking for directions. Moreover, the pressure to communicate effectively in a second language (L2) can contribute to feelings of self-doubt, anxiety, and frustration among international students (Dryden et al., 2021). They may worry about making mistakes, being misunderstood, or not being able to keep up with native speakers, which can undermine their confidence in their language abilities. These emotional challenges further exacerbate the already stressful experience of studying abroad, impacting their overall well-being and academic performance. Therefore, enhancing confidence in their L2 is crucial for international students.

Previous research on international students has primarily focused on factors such as satisfaction, cultural adaptation, psychological well-being, and policy influences (Bai et al., 2023; Q. T. Chen & Miao, 2016; Cipolletta et al., 2022; Trilokekar & Masri, 2016). While these studies offer valuable insights into the experiences of international students, they often overlook the issue of linguistic confidence among this population. Linguistic confidence refers to an individual’s perceived proficiency level in a L2 coupled with a reduced level of anxiety when using that language (MacIntyre et al., 1997; Sampasivam & Clement, 2014). Despite the critical role of linguistic confidence in facilitating academic and social integration (Hummel, 2013; Yu & Shen, 2012), enhancing the linguistic confidence of international students remains underexplored in the existing literature. Cultural intelligence emphasizes an individual’s effectiveness in multicultural environments (Triandis, 2006), yet its impact on the linguistic confidence of international students has been minimally studied. Prior research has predominantly focused on cultural intelligence’s influence on cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication skills (Bostan et al., 2021; Chu & Zhu, 2023). However, specific mechanisms through which cultural intelligence influences linguistic confidence, particularly via cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence, are insufficiently explored, especially among Chinese international students.

This study aims to address these gaps concerning international students in China, particularly regarding their linguistic confidence in the L2 context. It examines whether higher levels of cultural intelligence among international students correlate with greater linguistic confidence in their L2 compared to those with lower cultural intelligence levels. Additionally, the study explores how cross-cultural adaptation (the ability to adjust and thrive in a new cultural environment) and interpersonal communication competence (effective communication across cultural boundaries) mediate this relationship in L2 communication contexts (Liu, 2017; Santos et al., 2019). These factors are pivotal for international students in China, where they encounter language and cultural barriers affecting academic and social integration (Muthuswamy & Varshika, 2023). While cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence are crucial, not all international students possess these skills equally, particularly in their L2 context. Thus, the study proposes that cultural intelligence significantly enhances cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence among international students in China. Enhanced cultural intelligence helps students understand and appreciate cultural nuances in academic and social interactions, aiding their adaptation to the Chinese cultural context and improving L2 proficiency. Moreover, within the multicultural environment of Chinese universities, effective interpersonal communication is essential for international students’ success in their L2 studies. Students with higher cultural intelligence are likely more adept at navigating communication challenges, leading to increased linguistic confidence in their L2 proficiency. By investigating the mediating roles of cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence in L2 communication contexts, this study seeks to elucidate how cultural intelligence influences linguistic confidence among international students in China. It aims to inform interventions and support mechanisms that facilitate linguistic and cultural adaptation, ultimately enhancing the academic and social experiences of international students in China.

This study extends previous research in two key areas. Firstly, it investigates how cultural intelligence influences international students’ linguistic confidence in their L2 through the mediating roles of cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence. This aspect is crucial for understanding the specific mechanisms through which cultural intelligence impacts linguistic confidence among international students in the context of China. Secondly, the study examines how cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence act as vital mediating variables, linking cultural intelligence with linguistic confidence in the L2 context. This approach not only sheds light on the direct impact of cultural intelligence on linguistic confidence but also elucidates the indirect pathways through which it influences linguistic confidence via these mediating factors within the framework of L2 communication. The study is expected to provide new insights into the relationship between cultural intelligence and linguistic confidence among international students in their L2 proficiency, offering valuable implications for educational institutions and policymakers to support international students’ language learning and cultural adaptation processes in China. The anticipated results are expected to contribute to the development of targeted interventions and programs aimed at enhancing international students’ linguistic confidence and cross-cultural communication skills in their L2, thereby facilitating their academic and social integration in the Chinese context.

The following sections are structured as follows: Section 2 presents the hypotheses and conceptual models. Section 3 introduces data collection and data analysis methods. Section 4 describes the results of the data analysis and tests the hypotheses. Section 5 discusses the theoretical implications, practical implications, and limitations with directions for future studies.

Literature Review

Effect of Cultural Intelligence on Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Cultural intelligence is a concept that emphasizes an individual’s ability to effectively navigate and operate in culturally diverse environments (Earley & Ang, 2003). It encompasses the knowledge, skills, and mindset required to understand and interact with people from different cultural backgrounds (Drame et al., 2021). In the context of international students in China, cultural intelligence plays a crucial role in facilitating their adaptation to the new cultural environment and fostering cross-cultural competence (Chu & Zhu, 2023). Most studies indicate that individuals with a high level of cultural intelligence are more inclined to engage in interactions and communication with people from diverse cultural backgrounds (Alam, 2020). This includes an active willingness to use new languages. Furthermore, cultural intelligence encompasses an understanding of and respect for various cultural backgrounds (Lekas et al., 2020). This comprehension and respect contribute to the establishment of positive cross-cultural relationships.

Several empirical studies support the positive relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adaptation. A survey-based study involving 151 expatriates working within the energy sector, mainly located in the Middle East, found that those with higher cultural intelligence levels reported better social integration and work performance (Setti et al., 2022). The study used a cross-sectional design and employed standardized questionnaires to measure cultural intelligence and adaptation outcomes. Similarly, another study focused on employees from the information technology sector in India who had been transferred to a different state within the country in the past month. This research combined quantitative surveys and found that workers with higher cultural intelligence were more proactive in seeking intercultural interactions and more successful in adjusting to their new environments (Kadam et al., 2021).

However, recent studies have highlighted some nuances and contradictions. A qualitative review of 425 studies published between 1988 and 2019 and found that cultural distance limited the positive effects of cognitive cultural intelligence, motivational cultural intelligence, and behavioral cultural intelligence on work adjustment (Han et al., 2022). Additionally, the positive relationship between motivational cultural intelligence and cultural adaptation was amplified (rather than diminished) when cultural distance was large. This suggests that cultural intelligence’s impact might be less likely to occur when expatriates do not have high levels of motivation to overcome these challenges, or when the challenges themselves are relatively easy to overcome. Furthermore, it has been argued that high cultural intelligence, although beneficial, may not be sufficient on its own (Hu et al., 2017). Research involving international students at three public universities in China demonstrated that institutional support and robust social networks also play critical roles in successful adaptation. Findings show that socializing through social media usage strengthens the relationship between multicultural experiences and cultural intelligence. Based on the literature and empirical evidence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural intelligence is positively correlated with cross-cultural adaptation.

Effect of Cultural Intelligence on Interpersonal Communication Competence

Cultural intelligence encompasses not only an individual’s ability to navigate diverse cultural environments but also their competence in interpersonal communication across cultures. Interpersonal communication competence refers to the capacity to effectively interact and communicate with others from different cultural backgrounds (Ayoko et al., 2022). In the context of international students in China, interpersonal communication competence is crucial for building relationships, resolving conflicts, and collaborating effectively with peers and faculty members. Research indicates that in cross-cultural environments, cultural differences can potentially lead to conflicts (Guerra et al., 2020). However, individuals with strong cross-cultural adaptation skills are typically better equipped to handle conflicts by seeking compromise and solutions instead of escalating disputes (Trueba et al., 2022). Additionally, those with proficient cross-cultural adaptation skills can better comprehend and adjust to the communication methods and customs of new cultures, making effective cross-cultural communication more achievable (Kai Liao et al., 2021).

Empirical studies support this positive relationship. A study using quantitative research methods explored the relationship between cultural intelligence and interpersonal communication among 450 middle school teachers in Indonesia, showing that teachers with high cultural intelligence tend to have adequate interpersonal communication skills (Alifuddin & Widodo, 2022). Another study collected data from global virtual team members and their colleagues (n = 262) in a multinational information technology offshoring company. The analysis indicated that team members’ communication was influenced by cultural intelligence, affecting the effectiveness of collaborative interpersonal processes (Presbitero, 2021).

However, recent studies have highlighted some nuances and contradictions. The effectiveness of cultural intelligence in enhancing communication competence may vary depending on the specific cultural contexts and the nature of interactions (Presbitero, 2016). Their research, which included a cross-sectional survey of expatriates in hierarchical cultures, suggested that high cultural intelligence might not translate as effectively into improved communication competence due to rigid social structures. Additionally, the effectiveness of cultural intelligence in enhancing communication competence varied significantly across different cultural settings (Fang et al., 2018). Based on the literature and empirical evidence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Cultural intelligence is positively correlated with interpersonal communication competence.

Effect of Cross-Cultural Adaptation on Interpersonal Communication Competence

Cross-cultural adaptation refers to the process through which individuals adjust to and thrive in a new cultural environment (Kim & McKay-Semmler, 2013). It involves not only acquiring knowledge about the host culture but also developing effective interpersonal communication skills to interact with members of that culture (Bai et al., 2023). Interpersonal communication competence plays a crucial role in facilitating cross-cultural adaptation by enabling individuals to build relationships, navigate cultural differences, and engage effectively with others in the new cultural context (Przybyszewska, 2022).

Research in the field of intercultural communication has consistently demonstrated that individuals who successfully adapt to a new cultural environment tend to exhibit higher levels of interpersonal communication skills, including the ability to interpret and respond to verbal and nonverbal cues, manage conflicts, and establish rapport with others from diverse cultural backgrounds (Chang et al., 2011; Kim, 2014). Moreover, cross-cultural adaptation involves developing cultural sensitivity and empathy, which are essential components of effective interpersonal communication. As individuals adapt to the Przybyszewskanorms and expectations of the new cultural context, they become more adept at understanding and navigating interpersonal dynamics, leading to improved communication outcomes (Stuart et al., 2021).

Empirical studies support this positive relationship. One study used qualitative methods, interviewing four virtual team members from different teams. The analysis revealed a positive correlation between cultural adaptation and communication quality (Chang et al., 2011). Another study systematically reviewed literature from 1994 to 2021 on the language and communication aspects of international students’ cross-cultural adaptation in higher education institutions (313 articles). It found that cross-cultural contact reduces prejudice and stereotypes against cultural others, thereby promoting interpersonal interactions (Smith, 2022). While the literature generally supports a positive relationship between cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence, some researchers argue that the relationship between adaptation and communication competence may not be linear. Instead, it might be influenced by factors such as the individual’s prior intercultural experiences, personality traits, and the specific cultural context of the host country (Garamvölgyi & Rudnák, 2023). Based on the literature and empirical evidence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Cross-cultural adaptation is positively correlated with interpersonal communication competence.

Effect of Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Interpersonal Communication Competence on Linguistic Confidence

Existing research on L2 linguistic confidence mainly treats it as an independent variable, exploring its role in facilitating and enhancing the study and life of international students in host countries. For example, a survey of 198 Chinese international students in Australia using quantitative research methods. The results showed that L2 confidence significantly helps international students with their cross-cultural adaptation (Yu & Shen, 2012). On the other hand, some researchers examine the impact of cross-cultural adaptation on language learning and confidence from a cross-cultural perspective. Cross-cultural adaptation involves the process of adjusting to a new cultural environment, which typically includes acquiring proficiency in the language used in that culture (Noels & Clément, 1996). Individuals with positive cross-cultural adaptation abilities are more likely to engage in social interactions and communicate with locals (Charoensukmongkol, 2020). Moreover, research indicates that individuals demonstrating higher levels of cross-cultural adaptation often exhibit positive learning attitudes and are more willing to interact with native speakers (Zhang, 2017). As individuals gradually integrate into the new cultural context, they may gain access to additional language learning resources and practice opportunities, further enhancing their L2 confidence (Bostick et al., 2021; Clément et al., 2003).

Current research on the effect of interpersonal communication competence on linguistic confidence does not have empirical evidence of a significant positive impact. However, numerous studies have explored the role of interpersonal communication competence in enhancing individuals’ confidence in expressing themselves. For example, individuals with strong interpersonal communication skills tend to be more confident when interacting with others and can express their thoughts more effectively (Jarvenpaa & Leidner, 1999; Rubin & Martin, 1994). This includes both verbal and non-verbal communication skills and the ability to adapt communication styles to different interpersonal situations (Olszewski et al., 2017). These individuals typically exhibit higher levels of engagement and positivity in social activities (Kistyanto et al., 2022; Presbitero, 2021). An empirical study involving 175 post-study reports and four focus group interviews with Korean students in a short-term study abroad program at an American university examined the transition from linguistic insecurity to linguistic confidence. The study found that interpersonal communication competence helped alleviate the students’ linguistic insecurities (Lee & Jang, 2023). Similarly, another study surveying 150 Iranian L2 learners found that learners with higher communication competence in a cross-cultural environment demonstrated greater confidence in their L2 learning process(Ghasemi et al., 2020).

Based on the literature and empirical evidence, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Cross-cultural adaptation is positively correlated with positive linguistic confidence.

Hypothesis 5 (H5): Interpersonal communication competence is positively correlated with positive linguistic confidence.

Mediating Roles of Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Interpersonal Communication Competence

Cultural intelligence, defined as the ability to navigate and adapt effectively in different cultural settings (Earley & Ang, 2003), is believed to influence individuals’ behavior in cross-cultural contexts (Afsar et al., 2021; Alifuddin & Widodo, 2022). However, while there is increasing research on cultural intelligence, current studies have not examined the relationship between international students’ cultural intelligence and their linguistic confidence in using a L2. Additionally, no studies have confirmed the mediating roles of cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence in this relationship. Existing research highlights the importance of cultural intelligence in promoting effective communication and adaptation in a new cultural environment.

A few studies have focused on the impact of cultural intelligence on cultural adaptation and the subsequent effects on L2 use. For example, research indicates that individuals with high cultural intelligence are better at adapting to new cultural environments, including learning the local culture and language, both verbal and non-verbal (Bostan et al., 2021). As they become more comfortable in interpersonal interactions, this adaptation process enhances their linguistic confidence and expressive abilities (Yang et al., 2024).

Furthermore, other studies suggest that individuals with high cultural intelligence tend to possess stronger interpersonal communication skills. These skills enable them to navigate social interactions more effectively, reducing cultural conflicts and enhancing their motivation and confidence in using a L2 in the host country (Mehdipour & Yadegarzaee, 2019). Considering this extensive theoretical and empirical support, we hypothesize that international students’ cultural intelligence may help them improve their cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence, which in turn boosts their confidence in using a L2. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 6 (H6): Cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence mediate the relationship between cultural intelligence and linguistic confidence.

Conceptual Framework

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals’ behaviors, cognition, and environmental factors interact to shape learning and adaptation processes. The theory posits that individuals learn not only through direct experiences but also through observing others and modeling their behavior, known as observational learning or social learning (Bandura, 2011). In the context of international students’ linguistic confidence and cultural adaptation, social cognitive theory becomes particularly relevant. International students often encounter challenges related to language barriers, cultural differences, and social interactions in their new academic and cultural environments (Yassin et al., 2020). According to social cognitive theory, observing and modeling the behaviors of others who successfully navigate these challenges can enhance international students’ self-efficacy beliefs in their language skills and cultural adaptation abilities (Delport, 2019; van Dinther et al., 2011). Moreover, providing opportunities for international students to engage in guided practice and receive constructive feedback can further bolster their self-efficacy beliefs and facilitate their adaptation process (Bandura, 2011). Recent research has shown that interventions based on social cognitive theory principles, such as peer mentoring programs, language exchange initiatives, and cultural immersion experiences, can effectively enhance international students’ learning confidence and cultural adaptation (Beirne et al., 2023; Chelberg & Bosman, 2020; Omari et al., 2020). These interventions provide opportunities for observational learning, skill development, and social support, all of which are central tenets of Social Cognitive Theory (Papyrina et al., 2021; Smith, 2022). Therefore, integrating social cognitive theory principles into educational interventions and support services can contribute to improving international students’ academic success and overall well-being in cross-cultural contexts.

Conceptual Model

This study constructs a conceptual model that explores the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, interpersonal communication competence, and linguistic confidence. While previous research has investigated the impact of cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adaptation (Setti et al., 2022) and its role in interpersonal communication competence (Garamvölgyi & Rudnák, 2023), there remains a gap in the literature regarding how cultural intelligence influences linguistic confidence. Specifically, how international students can leverage their cultural intelligence to enhance their linguistic confidence during the process of cross-cultural adaptation has not been adequately addressed. Therefore, the unique contribution of this study is to fill this gap by examining both the direct and indirect effects of cultural intelligence on the linguistic confidence of international students.

Based on social cognitive theory, the conceptual model proposed in this study hypothesizes a complex interplay between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, interpersonal communication competence, and linguistic confidence. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the interaction between individuals’ behavior, cognition, and environmental factors, which together influence learning and adaptation processes. According to this theory, cultural intelligence not only directly impacts international students’ cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence but also indirectly enhances their linguistic confidence by improving cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence.

In the model of this study, cultural intelligence serves as the independent variable that affects international students’ cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence. Specifically, cultural intelligence enables students to better understand and navigate the challenges of a new cultural environment, thus enhancing their ability to adapt to the new culture and boosting their confidence in interpersonal interactions (Bandura, 2011). Furthermore, cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence act as mediating variables, strengthening students’ self-efficacy beliefs in language communication, thereby increasing their linguistic confidence.

In summary, the conceptual framework of this study is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

The hypothesized model.

Methods

Participants and Data Collection Procedure

The target population of this study consists of international students studying in China, including undergraduates, master’s, and doctoral students. The researchers collected 282 online questionnaires using the snowball sampling method. During the data screening process, questionnaires were evaluated for completeness and reliability. Criteria for elimination included incomplete responses, inconsistencies in answers, patterns indicating random responses, and samples that were not international students. Following this rigorous screening, 38 questionnaires were deemed low-quality or invalid and were subsequently removed. This left 244 valid questionnaires, resulting in an effective response rate of 87%. Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the foreign students participating in this study who are studying in China.

Table 1.

Overview of Participants.

Profiles	Frequency	Proportion
Gender
Male	135	55%
Female	109	45%
Ethnicity
Asian	88	36%
Black or African American	30	12%
White	83	34%
Hispanic or Latino	19	8%
Other	24	10%
Age
≤23	141	58%
24–27	85	35%
≥28	16	7%
Education Level
Undergraduate student	152	62%
Master’s student	83	34%
PhD student	10	4%
Duration of Stay in China
<1 year	34	14%
1–3 year	147	60%
3–5 year	56	23%
>5 year	7	3%

Upon identifying the research group as international students studying in China, the researchers utilized the snowball sampling method. The identification of participants as international students was confirmed through screening questions in the questionnaire itself. Researchers initially contacted known international students in universities within the Jiangsu-Zhejiang-Shanghai area, asking them to forward the survey to other international students at their respective institutions. All participants in this survey were offered the opportunity to enter an online raffle after completing the questionnaire, with prizes ranging from 5 CNY to 50 CNY.

Measurements

The assessment of cultural intelligence employed the Cultural Intelligence Scale formulated by Earley and Ang (2003). This instrument features a set of four items, with examples like “I am conscious of the cultural knowledge I use when interacting with people with different culture that is unfamiliar to me.” The evaluation of cross-cultural adaptation drew upon a quartet of items from Bai et al. (2023), including phrases like “I can distinguish the true feelings of the Chinese from the courtesy.” The metric for interpersonal communication competence was derived from a scale by Rubin and Martin (1994), encompassing four distinct items, one of which states, “I let others know that I understand what they say.” The measure for linguistic confidence was based on a scale by Belletier et al. (2015), featuring four items, including “Personally, I believe that I know enough Chinese to speak correctly.”

All these scales were applied in their unmodified versions and incorporated a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 signifies strong disagreement and 5 indicates agreement. Furthermore, the survey was distributed to participants in both English and Chinese. The Chinese version was translated from English by a professional translator with expertise in English language and translation. To ensure accuracy, another qualified professional then translated it back into English. Both translators had advanced degrees in translation studies and extensive experience in academic translations.

Data Analysis

For this study, the investigation of the proposed theoretical framework was conducted through the application of structural equation modeling (SEM), utilizing the capabilities of the AMOS 26.0 software. SEM is notably esteemed in the realm of research for its robustness in examining latent constructs as part of measurement models, as well as for its efficacy in testing hypotheses related to these latent constructs within the structural model constructs.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

To provide a detailed understanding of the data, descriptive statistics for all key variables were calculated and are presented in Table 1. The means and standard deviations suggest that participants generally reported moderate levels of cultural intelligence (M = 2.76, SD = 0.87), interpersonal communication competence (M = 2.99, SD = 1.07), and linguistic confidence (M = 2.81, SD = 1.07), while reporting slightly higher levels of cross-cultural adaptation (M = 3.35, SD = 1.24). These results indicate variability across participants, particularly in cross-cultural adaptation, as reflected in the higher standard deviation. Correlations among the variables revealed significant positive relationships, aligning with theoretical expectations and supporting the proposed model.

The variability in scores, especially for cross-cultural adaptation, highlights diverse experiences among participants. This suggests the need for tailored interventions to address specific challenges faced by different groups of international students, potentially improving their adaptation and communication outcomes.

Measurement Model

The current study’s measurement model prioritized assessing scale reliability and validity. Reliability was gauged using Cronbach’s α and composite reliability (CR) coefficients, with α values ranging from .88 to .94 across all variables, exceeding the threshold of .7 suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981), indicating robust internal consistency. Convergent validity was examined through factor loadings, which were observed between 0.72 and 0.92 for all variables, also surpassing the threshold of 0.7 recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), thereby affirming their adequacy. This was further reinforced by average variance extracted (AVE) values exceeding 0.64, above the threshold of 0.5 suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981), providing additional evidence of the model’s convergent validity. For discriminant validity assessment, the square roots of the AVEs for each construct were compared against the respective correlation coefficients with other constructs. As delineated in Table 2, the square root of each construct’s AVE surpassed its correlation with other constructs, thereby establishing substantial discriminant validity for the variables within the model.

Table 2.

Reliability and Validity Testing Pearson Correlation.

Construct	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4
1. Cultural intelligence	2.76	0.87	0.82
2. Cross-cultural adaptation	3.35	1.24	0.43**	0.80
3. Interpersonal communication competence	2.99	1.07	0.48**	0.64**	0.89
4. Linguistic confidence	2.81	1.07	0.40**	0.51**	0.49**	0.81

Note. The square root of the AVE is in diagonal; off diagonals are Pearson’s correlations of constructs.

p < 0.01.

Structural Model

The structural model’s analysis revealed significant interrelationships among the variables, corroborating all six proposed hypotheses as elaborated in Table 3. Model fit was evaluated using various indices, aligning with the thresholds suggested by Hair et al. (2010), with results indicating a satisfactory fit: χ²/df = 1.75, GFI = 0.92, NFI = 0.95, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, and RMSEA = 0.06.

Table 3.

Indirect Effects.

Path	Point estimate	Product of coefficients		Bootstrapping
		Product of coefficients		Bias-corrected 95% CI		Two-tailed significance
		SE	Z	Lower	Upper	Two-tailed significance
Cultural Intelligence → Linguistic Confidence	0.32	0.05	6.40	0.21	0.42	p < 0.01

As depicted in Figure 2, the structural path analysis highlights that cultural intelligence exhibits a significant positive association with both cross-cultural adaptation (β = 0.46, p < 0.001) and interpersonal communication competence (β = 0.26, p < 0.001), supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. Additionally, a significant positive correlation exists between cross-cultural adaptation and both interpersonal communication competence (β = 0.58, p < 0.001) and linguistic confidence (β = 0.34, p < 0.001), lending support to Hypotheses 3 and 4. Interpersonal communication competence also showed a significant positive correlation with linguistic confidence (β = 0.30, p < 0.01), endorsing Hypothesis 5.

Figure 2.

Structural model.

The investigation into mediating effects utilized the bootstrap approach, analyzing a 5,000-sample bootstrap, with results encapsulated in Table 3 within a 95% confidence interval. The outcomes reveal that cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence play substantial roles in mediating the impact of cultural intelligence on linguistic confidence (standardized indirect effect = 0.46, p < 0.01), thus confirming Hypothesis 6.

The results reveal that cultural intelligence serves as a foundational factor, significantly enhancing cross-cultural adaptation and interpersonal communication competence, which in turn mediate its impact on linguistic confidence. These mediators accounted for 35% of the total effect, highlighting their crucial role in fostering confidence in a second language. Furthermore, interpersonal communication competence not only directly bolsters linguistic confidence but also facilitates better social integration, a key element of the international student experience. These findings underscore the need for educational institutions to implement programs that strengthen cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, and interpersonal communication skills through targeted initiatives such as workshops and peer mentoring programs. Such measures could enhance linguistic confidence and support international students’ overall integration.

Discussion

Theoretical Contributions

The existing literature on international students predominantly explores various aspects of their learning and psychological well-being, such as studies on overall well-being (Van de Velde et al., 2021), mental health (Forbes-Mewett & Sawyer, 2019), and online learning experiences (Demuyakor, 2020). However, research that specifically addresses the linguistic confidence of international students in cross-cultural contexts—particularly in their L2—remains limited. This study addresses this critical gap by investigating the interrelationships among cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, interpersonal communication competence, and linguistic confidence among international students in China, where Mandarin Chinese serves as their L2. Our research makes an important theoretical contribution to understanding linguistic confidence in L2 acquisition and provides deeper insights into the role of these interrelated factors in international students’ adaptation and communication processes.

Our study finds a significant positive correlation between cultural intelligence and linguistic confidence in L2. This result provides new theoretical insights into the application of cultural intelligence within language learning contexts. While previous studies have emphasized the positive impact of cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adaptation (Setti et al., 2022), our research goes further by illustrating that cultural intelligence not only aids adaptation but also enhances interpersonal communication competence, both of which contribute to greater linguistic confidence. This finding is consistent with the general consensus that cultural intelligence facilitates adaptation (Charoensukmongkol, 2020) and interpersonal communication (Kim, 2014), but extends the literature by introducing the crucial mediating role of interpersonal communication competence. This is an important development, as it emphasizes the intricate mechanisms through which cultural intelligence operates to improve L2 acquisition.

In comparison to prior research, which has largely focused on cultural intelligence’s impact on broader intercultural interactions (Kadam et al., 2021), our study narrows the focus to its specific relevance in language learning. By highlighting the direct influence of cultural intelligence on L2 linguistic confidence, this research offers a more nuanced understanding of how cultural intelligence contributes to L2 acquisition. Moreover, we argue that fostering both cultural intelligence and interpersonal communication competence in international students is essential for not only adapting to a new culture but also for increasing confidence in using a second language. This perspective builds upon earlier findings on the relationship between cultural intelligence and language learning (Bostan et al., 2021), while providing a new theoretical framework for integrating these factors into the L2 learning process.

Additionally, our model explains 32% of the variance in linguistic confidence, underscoring the significant influence of cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation, and interpersonal communication competence. While this is consistent with prior studies that have demonstrated the role of self-efficacy and adaptation in language learning (Han et al., 2022), our findings suggest that these factors interact in a more complex and interconnected way. This is in contrast to earlier research that often treats these factors in isolation (Hummel, 2013; Yu & Shen, 2012). Our results highlight the need for a more integrated approach to understanding language learners’ cognitive and affective abilities, particularly in cross-cultural contexts where language and communication skills are intertwined with adaptation processes.

Comparing our findings to existing literature, we note that while cultural intelligence is frequently linked to improved cross-cultural adaptation and communication skills (Yu & Shen, 2012), few studies have explored its direct influence on L2 linguistic confidence. This study extends the literature by bridging this gap, suggesting that cultural intelligence not only enhances adaptation and communication but also plays a pivotal role in boosting students’ confidence in using their L2. This contribution is especially significant for international students, who face considerable challenges in adapting to new cultural and academic environments, which in turn affects their linguistic confidence. Our study thus offers a new perspective on how cultural intelligence can serve as a powerful tool in helping students navigate these challenges and develop greater confidence in their second language use.

Practical Implications

Our findings highlight the importance of cultural intelligence in enhancing international students’ cross-cultural adaptation and linguistic confidence. Consistent with Setti et al. (2022), our results demonstrate that students with higher levels of cultural intelligence are more successful in adapting to new cultural environments and exhibit greater linguistic confidence. This reinforces previous studies that have established cultural intelligence as a key factor in facilitating adaptation (Garamvölgyi & Rudnák, 2023) and communication competence (Ghasemi et al., 2020). However, our study goes a step further by emphasizing the specific role of cultural intelligence in language confidence, which is often overlooked in the existing literature. While prior research has generally linked cultural intelligence to broad adaptation outcomes, our study uniquely demonstrates its direct impact on enhancing L2 communication confidence. To address this, educational institutions should consider integrating cultural intelligence development into their curricula. This could be achieved through mandatory or optional courses on intercultural communication, Chinese culture, and cultural adaptation strategies. These courses should aim to develop key aspects of cultural intelligence, such as cultural awareness, empathy, and adaptability. Moreover, our study’s emphasis on the direct link between cultural intelligence and linguistic confidence suggests that these courses should also include specific language learning strategies that foster self-efficacy and self-assurance in using the second language.

Additionally, our study underscores the importance of cross-cultural training programs and workshops in equipping international students with the practical skills necessary for adapting to a new cultural environment. Building on the finding that interpersonal communication competence is critical for linguistic confidence and adaptation, our research aligns with prior studies Bostan et al. (2021) that highlight the significance of interpersonal skills in both academic and social success. However, our study extends these findings by focusing specifically on the mediation of interpersonal communication competence in fostering linguistic confidence, which was not previously emphasized in the literature. Institutions should offer training programs that move beyond theoretical frameworks and incorporate interactive, hands-on learning. These programs can include language practice groups, role-playing exercises, and simulation activities that allow students to apply their cultural knowledge and communication skills in real-world scenarios. For instance, pairing language exchange programs with cultural immersion activities—such as guided tours, participation in local community events, or volunteering opportunities—can provide meaningful experiences for students to improve their L2 communication skills while deepening their cultural understanding. This approach is particularly important in light of previous research by Setti et al. (2022), which suggests that experiential learning enhances both language and adaptation outcomes. These training programs can also help students better navigate communication barriers and interpersonal challenges, ultimately contributing to their sense of belonging and confidence.

The findings further emphasize the critical role of interpersonal communication competence in fostering linguistic confidence and facilitating successful adaptation. Our results are consistent with the work of Mehdipour and Yadegarzaee (2019), who also argue that strong interpersonal communication skills are essential for both academic success and social integration. However, our study adds a unique perspective by demonstrating that interpersonal communication competence is not only crucial for adaptation but is a direct mediator between cultural intelligence and linguistic confidence. To support this, universities can implement peer mentoring programs that pair international students with local students or experienced international peers who have already adapted to the environment. This aligns with prior studies on peer mentoring, which suggest that peer support plays a significant role in easing the adaptation process (Cipolletta et al., 2022). Mentors can help new students navigate everyday challenges, such as managing language barriers, understanding cultural norms, and forming social connections. These programs can be embedded into broader institutional efforts to promote cultural intelligence, creating a structured support system that encourages regular communication and cultural exchange. By fostering peer networks, institutions can cultivate an inclusive academic and social environment that enhances both students’ adaptation outcomes and their overall well-being.

Finally, our findings suggest that leveraging online platforms can complement face-to-face support and improve the effectiveness of language and cultural adaptation programs. This insight is particularly timely in the context of growing digital learning environments, as suggested by Rahmat et al. (2024), who found that virtual platforms provide essential support to international students in adapting to new educational contexts. With the increasing role of digital platforms in education, institutions should develop or expand virtual resources such as online language exchange programs, cultural workshops, and discussion forums. These platforms provide opportunities for international students to engage with local students, share experiences, and receive guidance on language learning and cross-cultural adaptation. Our research extends G. Chen (2023) findings by emphasizing that these digital tools can play a key role not only in language learning but also in fostering cross-cultural competence, thus directly addressing the needs of international students. Virtual language practice sessions, cultural discussion groups, and online mentoring programs can help students apply their skills in a flexible and accessible way, overcoming barriers such as time zones and physical distance. This perspective also aligns with research by Pollard and Kumar (2021), which highlights the effectiveness of online mentoring in bridging gaps for international students in the early stages of adaptation. Digital tools are especially beneficial for students who may feel isolated or hesitant to seek face-to-face help during the initial stages of adaptation. By providing continuous access to language and cultural support, these initiatives ensure that international students have the resources they need to navigate their new environment and build confidence in their communication abilities.

Limitations

First, this study utilized a cross-sectional design, capturing relationships at a specific point in time. Longitudinal research could offer a more comprehensive understanding of how these variables evolve over time. Second, this study utilizes SEM, a traditional method that, while robust, does not introduce novel methodological advancements. The conventional application of SEM may limit the scope of our contributions to the existing literature. Future research could benefit from incorporating alternative analytical methods such as multilevel modeling or latent growth modeling to provide deeper insights and enhance the research’s impact. Third, the study relied on self-report measures for variables such as cultural intelligence, language confidence, and cross-cultural adaptation. This may introduce response bias or social desirability effects. Fourth, the sample size of 244 international students, obtained through snowball sampling, may raise concerns about the representativeness and generalizability of the findings. Snowball sampling can introduce bias and limit the external validity of the results. These limitations suggest that future research could benefit from more systematic sampling methods to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Lastly, incorporating qualitative methods could provide a richer understanding of how international students perceive and discuss challenges in L2 acquisition and cross-cultural experiences.

Footnotes

The authors gratefully acknowledge the reviewers.

ORCID iDs

Ziqing Xu

Huilin Wang

Ethical Considerations

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Hunan First Normal University on February 15,2023 (No. 2023-018).

Consent to Participate

All participants provided written informed consent before participating in the study.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Conceptualization,X.L. and H.W.;methodology,Z.X.;writing—original draft preparation,X.L. Z.X. and H.W.;writing—review and editing,X.L. Z.X. and H.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article: This study was supported by the Hunan Provincial Social Science Achievement Review Committee (No. XSP2023JJZ001)

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the first and the corresponding authors.

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Examining the Association Between Cultural Intelligence and Linguistic Confidence: The Mediating Roles of Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Interpersonal Communication Competence in International Students in China

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Effect of Cultural Intelligence on Cross-Cultural Adaptation

Effect of Cultural Intelligence on Interpersonal Communication Competence

Effect of Cross-Cultural Adaptation on Interpersonal Communication Competence

Effect of Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Interpersonal Communication Competence on Linguistic Confidence

Mediating Roles of Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Interpersonal Communication Competence

Conceptual Framework

Social Cognitive Theory

Conceptual Model

Methods

Participants and Data Collection Procedure

Measurements

Data Analysis

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Measurement Model

Structural Model

Discussion

Theoretical Contributions

Practical Implications

Limitations

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Ethical Considerations

Consent to Participate

Author Contributions

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References