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Abstract

This study elucidates how information processing and self-questioning strategies are used in the context of online flipped teaching. A 6-week quasi experimental study was conducted to investigate online flipped teaching with the goal of exploring the impacts of two learning strategies, that is, annotation-summarizing-questioning (ASQ) and concept mapping-questioning (CMQ), on college students’ online learning motivation, learning engagement, and academic achievement. A total of 36 third-year undergraduate students participated in this study. The findings of this research indicated that while these two strategies did not have significant effects on students’ learning motivation or overall performance in terms of learning engagement, they could improve students’ emotional engagement. Additionally, students who used the ASQ strategy exhibited significantly improved cognitive engagement, and their academic performance was significantly better than that of students who used the CMQ strategy. Both strategies can enhance students’ engagement in the context of online flipped learning, but the ASQ strategy is more effective in promoting academic performance. This study, which is of considerable significance, highlights the learning strategies that influence engagement and academic performance in higher education online learning, and outlines the operational experience for online flipped teaching. Future research directions are also discussed.

Plain language summary

How does different information processing strategies influence college students’ learning motivation, engagement, and academic achievement in online flipped teaching.

Aims and purpose of the research: The effectiveness of college students’ online learning can be improved by studying learning strategies in the context of online teaching. The objective of this study was to clarify the application of information processing and self-questioning strategies in online flipped teaching. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the influence of two strategies, Annotation-Summarizing-Questioning (ASQ) and Concept Mapping-Questioning (CMQ), on college students’ online learning motivation, learning engagement, and academic achievement. Background of the research: The pre-class autonomous learning stage of flipped teaching needs to add refined information processing and testing strategies to promote smooth and effective learning. Although studies have explored the impact of the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy on students’ learning, there is no relevant research on whether these two strategies are suitable for online flipped teaching and how effective they are in promoting students’ online flipped learning. Methods and research design: A 6-week quasi-experimental research was conducted on online flipped teaching to explore the impact of two learning strategies on learning. The study involved 36 third-year undergraduate students. Results and importance: The research results indicate that while the two strategies did not have a significant effect on students’ learning motivation and overall performance of learning engagement, they were able to improve students’ emotional engagement level. Additionally, students who used the ASQ strategy showed a significant improvement in cognitive engagement, and their academic performance was significantly higher than that of the CMQ strategy group. Both strategies can enhance students’ engagement in online flipped learning, and the ASQ strategy is more effective in promoting good academic performance.

Keywords

information processing strategy online flipped teaching learning motivation learning engagement academic performance

Introduction

In the context of digital education, online learning has become an important way of ensuring the effective development of higher education (M. Wang et al., 2023). Flipped classrooms have been an important trend in online learning for years (Bharali, 2014); thus, the online flipped classroom approach (which is abbreviated as OFC teaching) has been adopted by an increasing number of teachers to facilitate online teaching. However, improving the enthusiasm and engagement of college students in online learning and ensuring the quality of students’ online learning have come to represent concerns for teachers. The results of previous studies have demonstrated that, compared with the traditional teaching mode, which is based on teacher teaching, the flipped classroom mode (which is abbreviated as FC teaching) has positive effects on students’ learning participation, learning attitudes, learning performance, and other aspects (J. Chen et al., 2023). In addition, this approach has positive effects on students’ academic performance, learning motivation, social interaction ability, autonomous learning skills, and cognitive development (X. Wang et al., 2020). Some studies have reported that online flipped learning has the same effect as traditional flipped learning in terms of improving students’ learning performance (Cheng et al., 2022; Stöhr et al., 2020).

To ensure the learning effect of students in the context of flipped teaching, some researchers have implemented many teaching strategies (L. Liu & Wang, 2019). However, this strategy has not successfully stimulated students’ interest in pre-class learning. Some researchers have added the information processing strategy of “watching teaching video + summarizing + questioning” (which is known as the WSQ strategy) during the preclass autonomous learning stage by instructing students to watch a teaching video and summarize the video content in response to certain questions (Kirch, 2012). To improve the WSQ strategy, some researchers have proposed the preclass self-learning strategy of “annotation + summarizing + questioning” (which is known as the ASQ strategy), which requires students to take notes while watching a teaching video to ensure that they are well prepared for subsequent summaries and questions. If learners can correctly identify key concepts in videos, they are more likely to succeed in the “summary” and “question” stages and thus participate more effectively in class discussions (H. C. Lin et al., 2019). Other studies have reported that the comprehensive application of a strategy involving questioning and concept mapping (i.e., concept mapping + questioning, which is known as the CMQ strategy) in teaching can help stimulate students’ learning motivation and cultivate positive learning attitudes among them (Sezgin Selçuk et al., 2011).

The preclass autonomous learning stage of flipped teaching must add refined information processing and testing strategies to promote smooth and effective learning. Although studies have explored the impact of the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy on students’ learning, no relevant research has investigated whether these two strategies are suitable for the online flipped teaching context and how effectively they can promote online flipped learning among students. Research has reported that students tend to be less motivated when they watch videos during the early stages of flipped learning (Cheng et al., 2022), whereas differences in students’ levels of motivation in the context of online flipped learning can lead to polarization in their subsequent learning performance (Stöhr et al., 2020). In the process of knowledge construction, the level of learning engagement is an important factor that impacts the learning effect (H. Wang et al., 2017), and it represents an important standard that can be used to measure the quality of higher education (Y. Wang, 2013). Academic achievement is an important outcome of student learning (Shadiev et al., 2015).

This study investigates whether the use of different information-processing self-questioning strategies to conduct preclass autonomous learning affects students’ learning motivation, learning engagement, and learning achievement performance in the context of online learning. This research takes college students, who are already familiar with the flipped classroom, as its research object. However, students’ participation in learning remains negative. Therefore, this study hopes to use this problem as a guide to determine which method leads to better learning results.

Literature Review

The flipped classroom is an effective teaching model that involves transferring the learning initiative from the teacher’s side to that of the student by reorganizing the time spent inside and outside the classroom (van Alten et al., 2019). At present, flipped teaching is widely used to teach various subjects and has achieved good teaching results (Shadiev et al., 2015; van Alten et al., 2019). Due to the increasing prevalence of distance education and online learning, several researchers have proposed online flipped teaching (Stöhr et al., 2020) and experimentally demonstrated that traditional flipped learning and online flipped learning have the same effect on promoting academic achievements among students. In the context of online flipped teaching, learners complete online knowledge learning and practice tasks before class; during class, teachers and students meet online, and learners further explore and master relevant knowledge and skills by engaging in group discussions, study, collaboration, and other activities (Stöhr et al., 2020; W. C. V. Wu et al., 2020). Although many studies have reported that flipped teaching can have a positive effect on students’ learning, this approach still entails many challenges, such as a lack of motivation on the part of students in the pre-class autonomous learning stage and a corresponding lack of interaction and immediate feedback in the autonomous learning stage (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020). Due to their inattention when watching teaching videos and poor self-learning effects before class (Zainuddin et al., 2019), students have poor independent learning ability, and it is difficult for them to manage their time effectively and complete learning activities in an orderly manner (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020). If students are not fully prepared to engage in preclass learning, they may be unable to participate actively and effectively in classroom activities, thus significantly reducing the effect of flipped teaching (Sun & Xie, 2020). Therefore, practical techniques and strategies must be integrated into the pre-class learning stage of flipped teaching to help students engage in autonomous learning more effectively.

Many researchers have tried to add specific information-processing strategies to the teaching process and have achieved good research results. If researchers ask learners to use annotation and note-taking strategies to facilitate language learning, this strategy can help students extract important information and achieve better academic performance (Shadiev et al., 2015). Four learning strategies, that is, prediction, questioning, summarization, and clarification, have been integrated into teaching in the discipline of reading; in this context, the strategies of questioning and prediction promoted cooperative reading among students, whereas the strategies of summarizing and clarifying were difficult for students to master (S. S. Tseng & Yeh, 2018). Other researchers have reported that the addition of concept mapping strategies in a web-based learning environment can help learners organize important concepts related to core problems and significantly improve their problem-solving skills (Hwang et al., 2014). Many researchers have also actively explored the application of metacognitive strategies to teaching. Some researchers have reported that the use of metacognitive strategies in pre-class activities by college students has positive effects on their learning participation in class, while their level of pre-class study preparation has positive effects on their learning satisfaction and learning motivation in class (Yilmaz & Baydas, 2017). Some researchers have reported that metacognitive strategies can improve students’ learning effectiveness in the context of computer programing and that self-questioning strategies can effectively promote autonomous learning among learners (Rum & Ismail, 2017). Other researchers have compared the effects of student-generated questioning (SGQ) and teacher-generated questioning (TGQ) on students’ learning in the flipped classroom situation and reported that students’ questioning strategies can significantly improve their English grades; in addition, students also exhibit more significant mental effort in this context (C. H. Chen & Yeh, 2019).

Some researchers have combined information processing strategies with metacognitive strategies in flipped teaching and achieved good teaching results. For example, one researcher added the WSQ (watching-summarizing-questioning) strategy to the self-learning stage before the flipped teaching class; this strategy requires students to summarize the video content after watching the teaching video provided by the teacher before the class and raising content-related questions (Soliman, 2016). The application of the WSQ strategy in the context of flipped teaching can increase students’ levels of attention and motivation, and integrating the questioning strategy during the stage of self-directed learning enables students to understand the given learning content and achieve effective self-learning (Sung et al., 2019). Asking students to raise questions during their pre-class studies can encourage them to watch video material more attentively and prepare themselves to participate more effectively in discussions in class. Moreover, if students can watch the teaching video effectively, they will likely perform better in subsequent questioning and discussion sessions (Teplitski et al., 2018). However, the WSQ strategy does not provide learning support for students while watching the videos. To solve this problem, Lin et al. proposed the annotation, summarizing, questioning (ASQ) strategy, which is based on an improvement of the WSQ strategy and requires students to watch the teaching video and take notes from time to time with the goal of preparing them for future summaries and questions (H. C. Lin et al., 2019). If learners can correctly identify key concepts in the video, they are more likely to succeed in the following summarizing and questioning phases and thus to participate more effectively in class discussions. Research has reported that the use of ASQ strategies in nursing education can significantly improve learners’ nursing skills, self-efficacy, and critical thinking tendencies (H. C. Lin et al., 2019). Some researchers have used a questioning and graphic organization strategy (i.e., concept mapping and questioning: CMQ) in the context of flipped teaching. This strategy requires students to draw a concept map based on the video content while watching a teaching video before class; subsequently, on this basis, they propose a concept map in line with the curriculum and pose some content-related questions. Students who used the strategy have exhibited more positive learning attitudes and motivation to learn than those in the control group, and the former have also exhibited better academic performance (Sezgin Selçuk et al., 2011). C. J. Lin (2019) applied the CMQ strategy to teaching in the discipline of writing and reported that there were no significant differences in academic performance between the experimental group and the control group; however, the students in the experimental group exhibited significantly higher levels of learning participation than did students in the control group.

Researchers have explored the effects of the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy on students’ learning performance, learning attitudes, learning motivation, self-efficacy, and learning engagement. However, the question of whether these two strategies can have positive effects on students’ ability to study online is whether they can improve students’ learning motivation, increase their learning engagement, and improve their academic performance. This study aims to explore the influence of these two strategies on students’ learning processes and results and to develop a better strategy for improving the effect of online learning. This goal has a certain degree of theoretical and practical significance.

Experimental Design

Participants

The participants in this study were 36 third-year educational technology majors (seven males and 29 females) from a comprehensive university in China, aged between 20 and 23 years (M = 21, SD = 0.7). All participants had completed the prerequisite courses and shared the same level of prior knowledge. They were randomly assigned to nine learning groups, with four students in each group. Twenty students from five learning groups were assigned to the ASQ strategy (annotation-summarizing-questioning, n = 20, four males and 16 females). In comparison, 16 students from the remaining four learning groups were assigned to the CMQ strategy (concept mapping-questioning, n = 16, three males and 13 females). This allocation was conducted entirely randomly, without any perceived intervention. The learning content, learning support, and online platform were identical for all 36 participants. All participants, except for two who missed the pre-test of academic performance due to late course selection, engaged fully in every aspect of the study from beginning to end. Every participant was informed about and consented to this study. Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of the affiliated university.

Experimental Procedure

This study was conducted as quasi-experimental research. The research process was divided into three stages: pre-test, experimental implementation, and post-test (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Experimental design procedure.

The study included pre-test and post-tests of learning engagement, learning motivation, and academic achievement during the first and sixth weeks, respectively. The quasi-experimental research was implemented from the second week to the fifth week. Those students in the ASQ strategy group analyzed learning points and key concepts while watching the teaching micro-video. They identified and annotated the key concepts (in any form), summarized what they had learned from the content, reflected deeply, and raised questions about the learning material. The study sheet focused on notes, summaries, questions, and possible solutions. After completing the learning sheet, students posted their questions on the teaching platform’s forum. The CMQ strategy group students created a concept map while watching the video before class, raised questions related to the course content, and integrated the concept map and questions into the study sheet. These students also posted their questions on the teaching platform forum. The study employed an independent task publishing format on the online platform, ensuring both consistency within groups and differences between groups.

The courses under research focused on integrating information technology with various disciplines and the methods and models used to achieve this integration in disciplinary teaching from week 2 to week 5. The instructor implemented an online flipped teaching mode during the research to promote participants’ learning and group collaboration. First, participants engaged in an independent study before class (watching micro-videos, completing worksheets on learning contents, and raising questions for discussion on the teaching online platform). Then, there was a weekly synchronous online discussion class between the instructor and participants, with each session lasting 100 min. The time was arranged on the course schedule. During scheduled class hours, instructors addressed and analyzed common issues from the previous week’s study and assigned follow-up learning tasks through the online classroom. After class, students accessed knowledge through online micro-course resources (watching three micro-videos of course content each week, each lasting 15–20 min), shared their learning reflections (completing a weekly study sheet), and highlighted the most significant problems with the content on the online platform. Students and their peers responded to one another to resolve problems, while unresolved issues were collaboratively addressed during the focused online session in the following class.

Instruments

The learning motivation measure was based on the questionnaire developed by Pintrich et al. (1993). Regarding this prepared seven-point scale, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the questionnaire in this study was .93, thus indicating a high level of internal consistency. Learning engagement included behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement, while behavioral engagement was defined as watching videos, accessing resources, submitting study sheets, posting questions, replying to posts, and browsing discussion forums (Li et al., 2020). Researchers downloaded and selected process data regarding students’ online learning behavior from the learning platform. Emotional engagement was subdivided into six categories: support, opposition, unclear emotions, insightful insights, confusion, and joking (Harris et al., 2014). A total of 862 pieces of discussion information generated in the context of two similar tasks before and after the experiment were coded, and the coding had high consistency (Kappa = 0.83 in the pre-test, Kappa = 0.88 in the post-test). Cognitive engagement was examined in terms of two dimensions: problem-raising and problem-solving. In particular, the level of problem-raising was examined in terms of four dimensions: fluency, flexibility, originality, and profundity (C. Liu & Chongde, 2015), while problem-solving was divided into four phases: problem description, solution searching, selecting a suitable solution through argumentation, and self-evaluation and revision (Kim & Lim, 2019). The two researchers obtained a high level of consistency in the coding of problem-raising (Kappa = 0.85 in the pre-test, Kappa = 0.79 in the post-test) and problem-solving (Kappa = 0.83 in the pre-test, Kappa = 0.82 in the post-test), thus indicating that the measure exhibited a high level of reliability. Moreover, the teacher evaluated the teaching design proposals submitted by the learners before and after the experiment, and the scores thus obtained were used as data concerning the students’ academic achievement.

Data Analysis

In this study, we investigated the effects of two online learning strategies on students’ learning motivation, learning engagement, and academic achievement. To assess changes in learning motivation, paired-samples t-tests were conducted to compare pre- and post-intervention motivation levels within each group. Learning engagement was operationalized as a multidimensional construct comprising behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components. Behavioral engagement data were extracted from the learning platform, and the performance scores of the two groups were compared across six specific behavioral indicators. Non-parametric tests were employed to analyze pre- and post-intervention differences in behavioral engagement. Emotional engagement was assessed across six distinct dimensions, with the frequency of each dimension compared and analyzed. To evaluate changes in emotional engagement before and after the intervention, non-parametric tests were conducted for each dimension within the two groups. Cognitive engagement encompassed two key dimensions: problem-raising and problem-solving. Depending on the distributional characteristics of the data, non-parametric tests or paired-samples t-tests were employed to analyze the changes before and after the intervention in each group. Finally, independent sample non-parametric tests were conducted to compare the academic performance of the two groups before and after the experiment.

Results

Learning Motivation

To determine whether any differences were observed in the learning motivation exhibited by students in the two groups before and after the experiment, a paired-sample t-test was performed for this study. Before the test, the Shapiro–Wilk normality test was performed to investigate the data. The results revealed that the data was normally distributed. The pre-test data regarding students’ levels of learning motivation revealed that the mean score obtained by students in the ASQ strategy group was 66.40, while the mean score obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group was 66.06. The independent samples t-test revealed no significant differences in the initial levels of motivation exhibited by these two groups of students (t = −0.17, p = .87 > .05). The post-test data revealed that the levels of learning motivation exhibited by students in the CMQ strategy group decreased (M = 64.00, SD = 5.00), while the level of motivation exhibited by students in the ASQ strategy group increased slightly (M = 67.00, SD = 7.30). The data revealed by the paired sample t-test before and after the experiment with respect to learning motivation are presented in Table 1. Regarding the impact on learning motivation, the results revealed no statistically significant changes in either the ASQ strategy group (t = −0.39, p = .70 > .05, Cohen’s d = 0.086) or the CMQ strategy group (t = 1.57, p = .14, Cohen’s d = −0.392). The small effect sizes further support the conclusion that the two strategies had no significant effects on students’ learning motivation.

Table 1.

Paired Sample t-Test of Students’ Learning Motivation and Problem-Solving Scores in the Pre-test and Post-test.

	Group	Pre-test	Post-test	t	p	Cohen’s d
Data Items	Group	M ± SD	M ± SD	t	p	Cohen’s d
Learning motivation	ASQ group	66.40 ± 6.71	66.90 ± 7.30	−0.39	.704	0.086
Learning motivation	CMQ group	66.06 ± 5.58	64.00 ± 5.00	1.60	.138	−0.392
Problem-solving	ASQ group	18.77 ± 4.97	25.56 ± 1.76	−3.60	.002**	0.805
Problem-solving	CMQ group	17.49 ± 7.04	22.00 ± 6.36	−2.15	.049*	0.536

M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Learning Engagement

Behavioral Engagement

In light of the six specific dimensions of behavioral engagement—watching videos, accessing resources, submitting study sheets, posting questions, replying to posts, and browsing discussion forums—the behavioral engagement scores obtained by the students before and after the experiment were standardized. In the pre-test, the learning participation scores obtained by students in the ASQ strategy group (M = 0.31, SD = 3.09) were slightly higher than those obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group (M = −0.39, SD = 2.23). However, the difference was not significant (see Table 2). In the post-test, the performance scores obtained by students in these two groups regarding “viewing resources provided by teachers” and “posting” tended to be identical. The students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited slightly better performance than the students in the CMQ strategy group concerning three aspects: “watching videos,”“completing and uploading study sheets,” and “participating in discussions and replying to others’ posts.” In contrast, the students in the CMQ strategy group exhibited better performance than those in the ASQ strategy group on “viewing content posted by others in the forum.”

Table 2.

Independent Sample Non-Parametric Test of Students’ Behavioral Engagement Scores.

Data source	ASQ group pre-test (n = 20) M ± SD	CMQ group pre-test (n = 16) M ± SD	Z	ASQ group post-test (n = 20) M ± SD	CMQ group post-test (n = 16) M ± SD	Z
Video view rate	0 ± 1.11	−0.01 ± 0.88	−0.02	0.19 ± 0.79	−0.24 ± 1.20	−1.48
Download resources	0.02 ± 0.96	−0.03 ± 1.08	−0.16	0 ± 0.00	0 ± 0.00	0.00
Upload study sheet	0 ± 0.00	0 ± 0.00	0.00	0.17 ± 0.00	−0.21 ± 1.50	−1.12
Ask questions	0.12 ± 0.80	−0.15 ± 1.22	−0.80	0 ± 1.36	0 ± 0.00	0.00
Reply to posts	0.08 ± 1.19	−0.1 ± 0.73	−0.13	0.1 ± 1.23	−0.13 ± 0.62	−0.10
Browse discussion boards	0.09 ± 1.26	−0.11 ± 0.54	−0.13	0.05 ± 1.19	−0.07 ± 0.73	−0.33
Total score	0.31 ± 3.09	−0.39 ± 2.23	−0.76	0.51 ± 2.56	−0.64 ± 1.68	−1.50

N = number of cases; M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

During the research process, the students in the ASQ strategy group were more actively involved in online asynchronous discussions on the discussion board after engaging in self-study. In contrast, the students in the CMQ strategy group were more inclined to browse posts on the forum. A non-parametric test was performed to analyze the differences in behavioral participation exhibited by these two groups of students before and after the intervention. The results revealed no significant differences in the pre-test and post-test scores obtained by these two groups of students.

Emotional Engagement

The six dimensions of emotional engagement, that is, support, opposition, unclear emotions, deep insights, confusion, and joking, were used to code and count the learners’ discussion posts before and after the implementation of the research intervention. Frequency (F) data regarding various emotions are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3.

Frequency of Emotional Participation (Pre- and Post-Measurement).

Group	Data type	The dimension of emotional engagement (frequency F value)
Group	Data type	Positive	Negative	Neutral	Profound	Confused	Jokes
ASQ group	Pre-test	12	2	37	9	2	0
ASQ group	Post-test	136	25	69	87	10	12
CMQ group	Pre-test	6	1	19	6	2	0
CMQ group	Post-test	39	11	35	21	2	7

Before the implementation of the research intervention, the ASQ strategy group and the CMQ strategy group exhibited “neutral” emotions most frequently during discussions (ASQ strategy Group F = 37, CMQ strategy Group F = 19), followed by “positive” and “profound” emotions as well as “negative” emotions. “Confused” emotions were less common, and the “joking” emotion type was not observed in either group. After the implementation of the research intervention, “positive” emotions (F = 136) appeared most frequently in the ASQ strategy group, followed by “profound” (F = 87) and “neutral” (F = 69) emotions; the least common emotion was “confused” (F = 10). Furthermore, “negative” emotions increased beyond the level observed in the pre-test. A similar situation was observed in the discussions of the CMQ strategy group, in which context “positive” emotions were the most common (F = 39), followed by “neutral” emotions (F = 35); “confused” emotions were the least common (F = 2).

The non-parametric two-correlation sample test performed to investigate the scores obtained by the two groups of students before and after the intervention of each emotional dimension revealed that the scores obtained by the students in the ASQ strategy group in the six emotional dimensions exhibited significant improvement as compared to their scores before the intervention, that is, positive (Z = −3.05, p = .00 < .05), negative (Z = −2.70, p = .01 < .05), neutral (Z = −2.10, p = .04 < .05), profound (Z = −3.19, p = .00 < .05), confusion (Z = −2.27, p = .03 < .05), and jokes (Z = −2.22, p = .03 < .05). In contrast, the difference in the scores obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group pertained only to positive (Z = −2.15, p = .04 < .05) emotions. These scores increased significantly, while the scores on the other emotional dimensions did not differ significantly from those observed before the experiment (see Table 4).

Table 4.

The Results of Two Correlated Sample Non-Parametric Tests About Each Dimension of Emotional Participation Before and After the Research Intervention.

Group	Data type	Positive			Negative			Neutral			Profound			Confused			Jokes
Group	Data type	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power
ASQ group (n = 20)	Pre-test	0.60 ± 0.88	−3.05**	0.838	0.1 ± 0.31	−2.70*	0.773	1.85 ± 1.87	−2.10*	0.764	0.45 ± 1.19	−3.19**	0.826	0.1 ± 0.31	−2.27*	0.505	0 ± 0	−2.22*	0.657
ASQ group (n = 20)	Post-test	6.80 ± 9.11	−3.05**	0.838	1.25 ± 1.89	−2.70*	0.773	3.54 ± 2.98	−2.10*	0.764	4.35 ± 6.06	−3.19**	0.826	0.5 ± 0.95	−2.27*	0.505	0.6 ± 1.05	−2.22*	0.657
CMQ group (n = 16)	Pre-test	0.38 ± 0.89	−2.15*	0.740	0.06 ± 0.25	−1.84	0.399	1.19 ± 0.54	−1.78	0.420	0.38 ± 0.72	−1.50	0.465	0.13 ± 0.5	0.00	0.050	0 ± 0	−1.84	0.437
CMQ group (n = 16)	Post-test	2.44 ± 3.22	−2.15*	0.740	0.69 ± 1.54	−1.84	0.399	2.19 ± 2.29	−1.78	0.420	1.31 ± 2.24	−1.50	0.465	0.13 ± 0.34	0.00	0.050	0.44 ± 0.89	−1.84	0.437

N = number of cases; M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

p < .05. **p < .01.

To further evaluate the robustness of these findings, post-hoc power analyses were conducted for each emotional dimension. The power values for the ASQ strategy group ranged from 0.505 to 0.838, with particularly high values observed for positive (0.838), negative (0.773), and profound (0.826) emotions, indicating a strong likelihood of detecting true effects in these dimensions. However, the power values for confused (0.505) and jokes (0.657) were slightly lower, suggesting a reduced ability to detect significant changes in these areas. For the CMQ strategy group, the power values were generally lower, ranging from 0.050 to 0.740. Notably, the power values for positive (0.740) emotions were relatively higher, while those for negative (0.399), neutral (0.420), profound (0.465), jokes (0.437), and confused (0.050) emotions were significantly lower, indicating a limited ability to detect true effects in these dimensions. These results highlight the importance of considering statistical power when interpreting the findings, particularly for the CMQ strategy group, where the lower power may have contributed to the limited detection of significant changes. Future studies with larger sample sizes are recommended to enhance the statistical power and provide more definitive conclusions.

Cognitive Engagement

This study focused on two aspects of cognitive engagement: problem-raising and problem-solving. The researchers used non-parametric tests and paired samples t-tests to analyze the differences between the two groups of students in terms of these two dimensions. The results of the study revealed no significant changes in the overall performance of the students in the two groups before and after the intervention, whereas their problem-solving abilities exhibited significant improvement.

An analysis of the overall situation regarding students’ questions revealed no significant changes in the level of questioning exhibited by the two groups of students before and after the experimental intervention. The pre-test means of the overall level of question presentation for students in the ASQ strategy group and those in the CMQ strategy group were 6.37 and 5.79, respectively. A non-parametric two-independent sample test revealed no significant differences in the pre-test scores obtained by students in the two groups (Z = −0.46, p = .65 > .05). After the experimental intervention, the post-test mean of the level of question-raising exhibited by students in the ASQ strategy group was 6.31, while the corresponding figure for students in the CMQ strategy group was 5.63; however, no significant differences continued to be observed between the two groups (Z = −0.69, p = .50 > .05). In comparison with the questions raised by students before the experiment (see Table 5), the question-raising exhibited by students in the ASQ strategy group (Z = −0.33, p = .76 > .05) and the CMQ strategy group (Z = −0.26, p = .82 > .05) were slightly lower. However, this difference was insignificant, and the experimental intervention did not affect the overall level of question-raising exhibited by students in these two groups.

Table 5.

The Results of a Two-Related Sample Non-Parametric Test of Question Scores (Pre- and Post-Test).

Group	Data type	Fluency			Flexibility			Originality			Profoundness			Question asked score
Group	Data type	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power	M ± SD	Z	Power
ASQ group(n = 20)	Pre-test	2.55 ± 2.01	−2.60**	0.771	1.35 ± 0.83	−1.22	0.348	0.79 ± 0.79	−2.60**	0.933	1.68 ± 0.86	−2.51*	0.891	6.37 ± 3.69	−0.33	0.051
ASQ group(n = 20)	Post-test	1.4 ± 0.75	−2.60**	0.771	1.15 ± 0.49	−1.22	0.348	1.46 ± 0.81	−2.60**	0.933	2.3 ± 0.73	−2.51*	0.891	6.31 ± 2.13	−0.33	0.051
CMQ group(n = 16)	Pre-test	2.19 ± 1.72	−2.37*	0.643	1.25 ± 0.84	−0.73	0.211	0.85 ± 0.74	−1.2	0.515	1.5 ± 0.86	−1.61	0.775	5.79 ± 3.64	−0.26	0.056
CMQ group(n = 16)	Post-test	1.38 ± 0.89	−2.37*	0.643	1.06 ± 0.57	−0.73	0.211	1.16 ± 0.72	−1.2	0.515	2.03 ± 0.96	−1.61	0.775	5.63 ± 2.5	−0.26	0.056

N = number of cases; M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

p < .05. **p < .01.

An analysis of the four dimensions of the question revealed that the fluency scores obtained by students in the ASQ strategy group (Z = −2.60, p = .01 < .05) and those obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group (Z = −2.37, p = .02 < .05) were comparable. Significant reductions were observed before the experiment, thus indicating that following the intervention, the number of questions asked by students in both groups decreased significantly. In addition, the flexibility associated with asking questions (i.e., the number of questions) did not change significantly before and after the intervention for students in either group. In terms of originality (Z = −2.60, p = .01 < .05) and profundity (Z = −2.51, p = .01 < .05), the post-test scores obtained by students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited significant improvement following the intervention. Although students in the CMQ strategy group also exhibited improvement in these two dimensions, this effect was not significant. These findings reveal that after the experimental intervention, the students’ performance in the ASQ strategy group exhibited significant improvement in these two dimensions. The questions raised by these students were more creative and unique, and they asked more inferential and evaluative questions pertaining to objective facts. As a result, students who used the ASQ strategy to learn made more significant progress in their questions’ originality and depth than those who used the CMQ strategy to learn.

To further assess the robustness of these findings, post-hoc power analyses were conducted for each dimension. The power values for the ASQ strategy group ranged from 0.348 to 0.933, indicating varying levels of statistical power across dimensions. Specifically, the power values for fluency (0.771), originality (0.933), and profoundness (0.891) were above the conventional threshold of 0.80, suggesting a high likelihood of detecting true effects in these areas. However, the power value for flexibility (0.348) was notably lower, indicating a reduced ability to detect significant changes in this dimension. For the CMQ strategy group, the power values ranged from 0.211 to 0.775, with profoundness (0.775) approaching the conventional threshold. The lower power values in several dimensions, particularly flexibility (0.211), suggested that the non-significant results in these areas may be partly due to insufficient statistical power. Future studies with larger sample sizes are recommended to confirm these findings.

A comparison and analysis of the problem-solving ability of the two groups of students before and after the intervention revealed that both strategies improved the students’ problem-solving ability. Before the test, the Shapiro–Wilk normality test was conducted to investigate the data. The results revealed that the data were normally distributed. The mean value of the initial level of problem-solving exhibited by the students in the ASQ strategy group was 18.77, while the corresponding figure for the students in the CMQ strategy group was 17.49 (see Table 1). The results of an independent sample t-test indicated no significant differences between these two groups of students concerning their initial levels of problem-solving (t = −0.64, p = .53 > .05). This suggests that both groups exhibited similar abilities in facing, analyzing, and solving problems. After 4 weeks of the intervention, the average problem-solving level demonstrated by the students in the ASQ strategy group was 25.56, whereas the corresponding figure for the students in the CMQ strategy group was 22.00. The results of paired sample t-tests indicated significant improvements in problem-solving abilities for both groups following the intervention. Specifically, the students in the ASQ strategy group showed a statistically significant increase (t = −3.60, p = .002 < .01, Cohen’s d = 0.805), indicating a large effect size. Similarly, the CMQ strategy group also exhibited significant improvement (t = −2.15, p = .049 < .05, Cohen’s d = 0.536), reflecting a medium effect size. This finding suggests that both the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy can effectively enhance students’ problem-solving skills.

Academic Achievement

One participant from each group missed the academic performance pre-test due to late course selection. After excluding their data, a comparative analysis was performed between the data of 19 participants in the ASQ group and 15 participants in the CMQ group.

In this study, two independent sample non-parametric tests were conducted to investigate the academic performance of valid subjects in the two groups of students before and after the test (see Table 6). No significant differences were observed (Z = −0.09, p = .94 > .05). After 4 weeks of experimental intervention, the same test was conducted to explore the students’ post-test academic performance once again. The academic performance exhibited by the students in the ASQ strategy group (M = 92.30, SD = 4.72) was significantly better than that of the students in the CMQ strategy group (M = 91.21, SD = 1.61). The results indicate that the ASQ strategy can promote an increase in students’ academic achievement levels more effectively (Z = −2.05, p = .04 < .05).

Table 6.

Two Independent Sample Non-Parametric Tests of Academic Performance (pre- and Post-Test).

Group	N	Pre-test		Z	p	Post-test		Z	p
Group	N	M	SD	Z	p	M	SD	Z	p
ASQ group	19	89.95	2.20	−0.09	.94	92.30	4.72	−2.05	.04^*
CMQ group	15	89.96	2.17	−0.09	.94	91.21	1.61	−2.05	.04^*

N = number of cases; M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

p < .05.

Conclusions and Discussion

Based on the practical implementation of online flipped teaching, this study uses two information processing strategies to facilitate teaching on the basis of the extant literature; in this context, quasi-experimental research is used as the primary method, including through the comprehensive use of questionnaires and discussion text content analysis. We employed various data analysis methods to explore the influence of two information processing strategies on the learning motivation, learning engagement, and academic performance exhibited by college students in the context of online flipped learning from multiple perspectives and thus obtained the following conclusions.

Conclusion 1: The Influence of Learning Strategies on College Students’ Learning Motivation in the Context of Online Flipped Teaching is Not Significant

Before and after the intervention, the students’ levels of motivation did not change significantly; after the intervention, the learning motivation scores obtained by students in the ASQ strategy group increased slightly, while the scores obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group decreased slightly. These findings are consistent with the conclusions of previous research. Studies have reported that both the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy can enhance positive learning attitudes and learning motivation among students, but the promotional effects of these two strategies have not reached the level of significance (Caliskan & Sunbul, 2011). These changes in learning motivation are also affected by task complexity. The participants revealed a burden in their recourse learning due to filling out the learning sheets. In turn, this burden affected their levels of learning motivation. Changes in learners’ motivation levels are also related to the duration of the intervention’s implementation. In the future, it is necessary to design research featuring a more extended implementation period with the aim of determining how information processing strategies can be integrated into this context to promote learners’ learning motivation.

Conclusion 2: Various Factors Affect Students’ Behavioral, Emotional, and Cognitive Engagement Performance

The two strategies have specific impacts on students’ learning engagement, but the overall impact on learners’ learning engagement is not significant. Careful analysis of the various dimensions of learning engagement leads to the following conclusions.

No significant differences were observed in students’ behavioral engagement, and the specific behavioral performance exhibited by students in the two groups during the learning process differed. The performance exhibited by the students in the ASQ group in terms of behavioral engagement was always slightly better than that exhibited by students in the CMQ strategy group, a situation which is mainly reflected in the fact that the students in the ASQ strategy group actively watched teaching videos, completed and uploaded study sheets, and participated in forum topic discussions (through replies). The students in the ASQ strategy group tended to reply on the forum and participate actively in the discussion, whereas the students in the CMQ strategy group were more inclined to browse other people’s posts. Previous research has reported that the total number of posts on a forum can predict the effect of learning to a certain extent (Luo et al., 2019). This finding may explain why the performance exhibited by the students in the ASQ strategy group was slightly better than that of the students in the CMQ strategy group in the later stage of the experiment.

The students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited better emotional engagement performance than those in the CMQ strategy group. The emotional engagement status of the students in the ASQ strategy group was characterized by diversity; that is, students who used the ASQ strategy to learn not only supported other people’s views during discussions but also refuted such views, expressed their confusion, stated their views, generated innovative suggestions and simultaneously used jokes to liven up the learning atmosphere. On the other hand, the students in the CMQ strategy group only tended merely to support the viewpoints of others, and their emotional state was relatively singular. The emotional engagement exhibited by the students in the ASQ strategy group was better in terms of quantity and variety than that of the students in the CMQ strategy group, which may be related to the different levels of academic self-confidence exhibited by students in these two groups. Studies have reported that academic self-confidence is positively correlated with students’ positive emotional engagement and negatively correlated with their negative emotional engagement (Sander & de la Fuente, 2022). A survey of the two groups of students included in this study revealed that the self-efficacy scores obtained by the students in the ASQ strategy group were slightly higher than those obtained by students in the CMQ strategy group, which may explain why the students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited better performance in terms of emotional engagement.

The results of this research, which are based on an examination of students’ cognitive engagement for the two aspects of “problem-raising” and “problem-solving,” reveal significant changes in the cognitive engagement exhibited by the two groups of students. The fluency indicator scores associated with the students’ questions were significantly lower in both groups. An analysis of the reasons for this situation revealed that during the later stage of the research intervention, the number of questions asked by the two groups of students tended to be stable, but the number of replies increased significantly. As the course progressed, most students tended to participate actively in discussions of problems rather than asking additional questions. In question flexibility, no significant differences were observed between the scores obtained by the two groups of students before and after the intervention. The students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited significant increases in both originality scores and depth scores. However, while the students in the CMQ strategy group also exhibited improvement, this change was not significant. Studies have reported that summarizing strategies can mobilize students’ higher-order thinking, improving learning outcomes (Chiu et al., 2013). In the process of taking notes and summarizing, students who use ASQ strategies for preclass learning must pay attention to the tasks of capturing the key information in the teaching video and summarizing it after engaging in in-depth thought, which motivates them to study in a more detailed manner and to prepare for subsequent question-raising and problem-solving (H. C. Lin et al., 2019). As a result, the students in the ASQ strategy group exhibited significant improvements in the originality and depth of their questions. Concerning students who used the CMQ strategy for learning, their worksheets indicate that many learners merely outlined the general framework of the video content, which hindered their in-depth thinking during the learning process (K. H. Tseng et al., 2013). This fact could also explain why their performance did not improve significantly in terms of the originality and depth of their questions. In addition, in this study, the students were required to draw concept maps independently while watching the instructional video. Previous studies have demonstrated that drawing individual concept maps has no significant effect on learners’ question-making but that shared concept maps that support multi-person editing have a significant effect on students’ ability to ask questions. Asking questions plays a positive role in the promotional effect (Stokhof et al., 2020). These findings also indicate that the learning effect is difficult to guarantee if one lists the knowledge framework when drawing a concept map (which does not involve in-depth thinking).

From the problem-solving perspective, the scores obtained by these two groups of students on the post-problem-solving test exhibited significant improvement; however, this improvement was more evident for the students in the ASQ strategy group. This finding is consistent with previous research, which has indicated that both the ASQ and CMQ strategies can improve learners’ critical thinking skills (H. C. Lin et al., 2019; H. Z. Wu & Wu, 2020) and that this ability is critical to problem-solving. In addition, the learners developed a deep understanding of the basics of the course over several weeks, and the questioning strategies used in this context prompted them to consider the problems that still exist in the field as well as ways of solving them. The support provided by teachers and the knowledge acquisition and deep thinking exhibited by students give them a sense of control and value during the learning process. This improvement has a positive effect (Muis et al., 2015). In this study, the learners in the ASQ strategy group were more skilled at asking questions than those in the CMQ strategy group. In the attempts of this study to guide students to ask questions, the students in the ASQ strategy group were asked to design a challenging core question and to try to provide a solution, whereas the students in the CMQ strategy group were required only to ask a question. Asking good questions requires increasingly deep levels of cognitive engagement, which can also predict students’ subsequent problem-solving performance to a certain extent. This finding may explain the differences observed between the two groups of students in their problem-raising and problem-solving performance. Furthermore, the extent and intensity of emotional engagement demonstrated by the students in the ASQ strategy group surpassed that of the students in the CMQ strategy group, which may also account for the strong performance observed among the students in the ASQ strategy group regarding problem-solving.

Conclusion 3: The ASQ Strategy Can Improve the Academic Performance of College Students More Effectively Than the CMQ Strategy

The post-test academic performance of the students in the ASQ strategy group was significantly better than those in the CMQ strategy group. Overall, the students in the ASQ strategy group performed better than those in the CMQ strategy group in terms of behavioral engagement, problem-raising, problem-solving, and emotional engagement, and these factors could effectively predict learners’ academic success (Shadiev et al., 2015). Some studies have also reported that students’ behavior, cognition, and emotional engagement have significant positive effects on their learning achievement (J. Chen et al., 2023). Students’ levels of learning engagement are positively correlated with their learning achievement (Nguyen et al., 2020). This finding can explain why the students’ academic achievement in the ASQ strategy group was significantly better than that of the CMQ strategy group. Conclusions that learners draw on their own through investigating and summarizing are more likely to encourage them to ask original and more profound questions than concepts obtained from a concept map that simply provides them with knowledge about a given topic. Learners are not limited to the knowledge contained in the lesson at hand. They can ask questions about real-life situations, thus leading to more active emotional engagement. This insight should shape the attempts of future teachers to design precourse guidance programs.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

Theoretically, this study enhances the theoretical understanding of how learning strategies influence students in online flipped teaching contexts. It comprehensively explores the effects of the Annotation-Summarizing-Questioning (ASQ) strategy and the Concept Mapping-Questioning (CMQ) strategy on college students’ learning motivation, engagement, and academic performance in an online flipped teaching environment. This empirical research found that the ASQ strategy significantly enhances students’ cognitive engagement and academic performance, while both strategies improve students’ emotional engagement. These findings deepen the theoretical understanding of how information processing strategies function in online flipped teaching settings, providing new insights for optimizing online learning strategies to enhance student learning outcomes. Moreover, the study addresses a research gap concerning the impacts of ASQ and CMQ strategies in online higher education contexts, enhancing the understanding of the intricate relationships among learning strategies, motivation, and engagement. This has significant theoretical implications for developing effective online teaching models.

In practice, this study offers valuable guidance for online flipped teaching in higher education. The findings suggest that educators can incorporate both the ASQ strategy and the CMQ strategy into their instructional design to improve the effectiveness of online teaching. Additionally, by emphasizing the importance of emotional engagement in students’ learning processes, the study recommends that teachers adopt strategies to enhance students’ emotional involvement, such as promoting active discussions and encouraging the sharing of opinions. These practical suggestions refine online teaching methods, foster greater student engagement in learning, and enhance learning outcomes, serving as a resource for university educators aiming to elevate teaching quality in online education.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study also has several limitations. On the one hand, these limitations relate to the number of classes included in this research; on the other hand, a lengthy research cycle may be influenced by additional factors not examined. This study selected only specific appropriate learning topics for continuous teaching. Two students were also absent from the course beginning during this process, and their data was excluded from this research. The small sample size and brief research period of this study limit the generalizability of the research conclusions and necessitate further investigation into the long-term effects of these factors in the future. Specifically, the information processing and self-questioning strategies demonstrate significant potential for application throughout students’ undergraduate education, while their effectiveness can be systematically evaluated through various assessment methods. Furthermore, it is essential to expand the research scope by increasing the sample size and implementing these strategies across a broader spectrum of MOOC courses. This expansion would facilitate more comprehensive and in-depth observations regarding the strategies’ efficacy and applicability in diverse learning contexts. Future research should also investigate the application of diverse learning strategies across various teaching formats and evaluate their specific effects on students’ learning engagement, learning motivation, cognitive processes, and learning outcomes.

Footnotes

The authors would like to thank the editor and anonymous reviewers for their numerous constructive comments and encouragement,which have greatly improved our paper.

ORCID iD

Wu Juan

Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education at Beijing Normal University.

Author Contributions

WJ contributed to the conceptualization,methodology,funding acquisition,formal analysis,supervision,visualization,and writing of the original draft and revisions. WL contributed to the methodology,data curation,validation,and writing of the original draft and revisions. YHH & YDF contributed to the methodology,data collection and writing of the original draft. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article: The author(s) received Major Projects in Education of the National Social Science Fund of China,under Grant number VCA240010 for the research and publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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The Influence of Learning Strategies on Students’ Learning Motivation,Engagement,and Academic Performance in the Context of Online Flipped Teaching

Abstract

Plain language summary

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Experimental Design

Participants

Experimental Procedure

Instruments

Data Analysis

Results

Learning Motivation

Learning Engagement

Behavioral Engagement

Emotional Engagement

Cognitive Engagement

Academic Achievement

Conclusions and Discussion

Conclusion 1: The Influence of Learning Strategies on College Students’ Learning Motivation in the Context of Online Flipped Teaching is Not Significant

Conclusion 2: Various Factors Affect Students’ Behavioral, Emotional, and Cognitive Engagement Performance

Conclusion 3: The ASQ Strategy Can Improve the Academic Performance of College Students More Effectively Than the CMQ Strategy

Theoretical and Practical Implications

Limitations and Future Directions

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Ethical Considerations

Author Contributions

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability

References