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Abstract

Although research on the connection between self-concept clarity (SCC) and positive post-breakup adjustment is limited, and the role of resilience remains underexplored, this study aims to bridge this gap by examining how SCC influences post-breakup growth through psychological factors related to resilience. We conducted an online survey with 306 Chinese young adults, aged 18 to 29, who had experienced a breakup within the past 12 months. The data were analyzed using SPSS to test the hypothesized relationships. The results indicated that SCC is significantly related to post-breakup growth, and this relationship is partially mediated by resilience, self-esteem, and optimism. These findings suggest that enhancing SCC and these mediating factors could facilitate better post-breakup adjustment. Future research should consider cross-cultural studies and explore additional psychological variables to further elucidate the mechanisms underlying post-breakup growth.

Keywords

self-concept clarity breakup romantic relationship resilience self-esteem optimism grit

Introduction

The development and maintenance of close relationships are integral to individuals’ lives, with those in fulfilling relationships often reporting elevated levels of happiness, well-being, and life satisfaction (Timoney, 2019). Consequently, the termination of romantic relationships frequently results in significant psychological distress and emotional upheaval (Sease et al., 2024). Over the years, there has been a steady increase in the average age of marriage, accompanied by a significant decline in the overall marriage rate (Ren, 2023). These societal shifts suggest that young adults are more likely to engage in and terminate romantic relationships than enter marriage. Although these relationships are not marital, their dissolution is a major life event that typically induces some degree of emotional distress, albeit temporarily (Sbarra & Borelli, 2019). Unfortunately, psychological research has not adequately developed our understanding of romantic break-ups (e.g., Brody et al., 2020; Dailey et al., 2020; Seraj et al., 2021). Considering the increasing frequency of romantic relationship breakups and their significant impact on individuals’ well-being, this article aims to deepen our understanding of the psychological factors that can facilitate positive adjustment following a breakup. There are two categories of adjustment following a breakup: poor adjustment, related to depression and persistent rumination (O’Sullivan et al., 2019), and positive adjustment, which involves a crisis-growth pathway. This perspective considers breakups as opportunities for personal growth, where individuals develop and improve while navigating the aftermath (Lee & Son, 2022). Positive indicators of adjustment and beneficial changes following distressing or traumatic events share a common factor known as adversarial growth, which involves overcoming adversity (Colbert & Willmot, 2021). When individuals experience the end of a relationship, they can undergo stress-related growth, which may lead to various positive developments. These include improved self-awareness and self-perception, enhanced interpersonal relationships, a more refined and positive life philosophy, and increased empathy and understanding toward others (Tedeschi et al., 1998).

Self-concept and self-concept clarity also play significant roles in understanding positive adjustment after a breakup. Relationship dissolution often leads to emotional distress as it profoundly disrupts an individual’s self-concept (e.g., Mattingly et al., 2020; Slotter & Emery, 2017). Self-concept is a dynamic cognitive schema encompassing self-traits, self-worth, self-related memories, and self-related information control. It comprises two main components: a description of one’s identity, including traits, physical characteristics, roles, values, and personal goals, and evaluations of the self, including specific self-beliefs and self-esteem (J. Campbell et al., 1996). Self-concept and trauma-related self-appraisals are associated with post-traumatic psychological adjustment (Engelbrecht & Jobson, 2020). Self-concept clarity, which usually diminishes after a breakup, refers to how clearly and confidently an individual understands their self-concept and its internal consistency and stability over time (J. Campbell et al., 1996). Greater self-loss after a breakup is associated with higher levels of emotional distress (Bennett et al., 2022) and nonclinical depressive symptoms (Slotter & Emery, 2017). The Loss of Self Scale, developed by Lewandowski and Bizzoco (2007), includes items such as “I do not know who I am” and “I feel incomplete.” The quality of the previous relationship influences self-loss after a breakup, with those ending high self-expansion relationships experiencing more self-loss than those ending low self-expansion relationships (Lewandowski & Bizzoco, 2007). However, a high level of self-loss does not necessarily predict poor adjustment post-breakup, as the potential for positive growth remains significant despite the initial impact of self-loss.

A previous study suggested that positive psychological attributes, such as optimism, high self-esteem, and hope, can explain why some individuals adjust more positively after a breakup (Franklin, 2015). These factors align with the conceptual framework of resiliency theory, which highlights positive traits like grit, self-esteem, and optimism that can mitigate the negative impact of a breakup (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). In contrast, individuals who exhibit poor post-breakup adjustment share certain characteristics, such as higher levels of neuroticism and attachment anxiety (Brassard et al., 2018).

Despite previous studies highlighting different psychological factors influencing post-breakup adjustment, research on the role of SCC in positive adjustment remains limited. Losing a relationship can significantly impact a person’s self-concept through specific abilities or general self-orientation (Lewandowski, 2002). Previous research has documented the decline in SCC following a breakup (Machia et al., 2023; McIntyre et al., 2017; Slotter et al., 2010; Slotter & Emery, 2017) and factors predicting SCC post-breakup (Slotter et al., 2014). Even though relationship dissolution is related to SCC, there is limited research on the connection between SCC and post-breakup adjustment. Lewandowski and Bizzoco (2007) found that self-rediscovery mediates the relation between the termination of a low-quality relationship and post-breakup growth. As individuals develop clearer self-concepts, they may experience less emotional intrusion from past relationships (Xiang et al., 2024).

Given the profound impact of relationship dissolution on self-concept and the critical role of self-concept clarity in emotional recovery, current research lacks a thorough examination of the relationship between SCC and positive post-breakup adjustment. This study aims to address this gap by investigating whether SCC contributes positively to post-breakup growth and exploring the role of resilience-related psychological factors as potential mediators in this process. The objectives of this research are to clarify the role of SCC in fostering resilience after a breakup and to identify the unique contributions of specific resilience-related traits (optimism, self-esteem, resilience, and grit) in promoting positive adjustment. Specifically, we examine how SCC influences adaptive responses to relationship dissolution and assess the mediating effects of these resilience-related traits within the SCC-growth pathway.

This study offers a unique contribution by positioning SCC as a mechanism that enhances resilience in the context of post-breakup adjustment. In contrast to previous research, which has focused largely on self-concept changes within ongoing relationships (e.g., Emery & Gardner, 2020; Mattingly et al., 2020), this study extends the understanding of SCC by examining how it functions through resilience-related factors, providing a comprehensive perspective on SCC’s multifaceted role in post-breakup recovery.

Literature Review

Self-Concept Clarity After the Breakup

Rediscovering oneself is integral to growing after a breakup (Paynter, 2019) and contributes to reconstructing identity or self-concept. Individuals tend to focus on the less mature aspects of their identities and enhance them (Mattingly et al., 2020). Rediscovery is related to the enhanced SCC, which fosters emotional recovery by reducing breakup-related emotional intrusion and loneliness (Arana et al., 2024) and assisting in dealing with stress. While previous research has explored SCC’s impact on emotional recovery, this study uniquely positions SCC as a foundational element not only for self-clarity but also as a resilience-enhancing factor. By examining SCC’s influence on resilience-related traits such as optimism and self-esteem, this research provides a fresh perspective on how SCC can drive positive adjustment following relationship dissolution. SCC is known to positively correlate with self-esteem (Kawamoto, 2020; Stenhaug & Solem, 2024), a factor crucial for personal resilience, as low self-esteem often relates to an unstable or inconsistent self-concept (J. Campbell et al., 1996). This study thus expands the existing literature by suggesting that SCC, through its interaction with resilience-building traits, may serve as a significant contributor to post-breakup growth.

The positive correlation between SCC and post-breakup growth can be elucidated through Higgins’ self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987). This theoretical framework posits that SCC is instrumental in validating one’s current self-state, establishing realistic and attainable goals, and motivating individuals to pursue these objectives steadfastly. As a vital aspect of self-concept (J. D. Campbell, 1990), SCC contributes significantly to an individual’s subjective well-being and is associated with enhanced emotion regulation abilities and improved psychological adjustment in adolescents (Parise et al., 2019). Moreover, individuals with elevated levels of SCC are better at managing their emotions and interpersonal relationships, (Welt & Bassellier, 2023). Thus, we hypothesize that:

H1: SCC is positively related to post-breakup growth.

SCC and Psychological Resilience

In addition to SCC, resilience is closely linked to positive post-breakup adjustment (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Although individuals may experience a sense of self-loss and depression after a breakup, their inherent resilience traits and psychological resilience can help them cope with stress and adversity, viewing the experience positively (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Resilience entails maintaining core functionalities despite ongoing intrusions, and effectively recovering normal system operations within a reasonable timeframe, rather than solely relying on preventative protection measures (Clark & Zonouz, 2019). Empirical evidence from prior investigations underscores the strong connection between resilience and SCC, exemplified in studies conducted by Liang et al. (2022), Mertens et al. (2022), and Lassri et al. (2023). Notably, Liang et al. (2022) discerned a positive influence of SCC on psychological resilience among Chinese patients undergoing enterostomy procedures. Similarly, Mertens et al. (2022) illuminated the constructive impact of heightened self-awareness, encompassing facets such as emotional regulation, self-esteem, and introspective contemplation, on bolstering resilience among early adolescents. Central to this discourse is the recognition that a lucid and well-defined self-concept, in contrast to its nebulous counterpart, serves as a resilience-enhancing factor. This assertion, advanced notably by Lassri et al. (2023), posits that a coherent self-concept facilitates individuals in assimilating past adversities into their narratives, thereby enabling the effective management of negative emotions through adaptive coping mechanisms.

To further understand the role of resilience, we examine three specific traits that are essential to post-breakup resilience: self-esteem, grit, and optimism. Self-esteem denotes an individual’s perception of value and is a key component of self-concept, reflecting how much people appreciate themselves (Pegler, 2018). Grit is characterized by persistent effort toward long-range objectives, even against challenges (Duckworth et al., 2007). Optimism involves the general expectation of positive future events (Kelberer et al., 2018). Individuals who demonstrate higher levels of optimism, self-esteem, and grit are generally less susceptible to experiencing depressive symptoms and engaging in rumination after a relationship dissolution (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Analyzing these traits independently allows us to explore their unique contributions to the SCC-growth pathway, providing a more nuanced understanding of how resilience-related traits facilitate positive adjustment following a breakup.

While self-esteem, grit, and optimism are all resilience-related traits that support positive adjustment, examining them independently allows us to better understand each trait’s unique contribution to resilience. For example, self-esteem primarily enhances emotional stability, grit fosters perseverance in adversity, and optimism encourages positive future expectations. Together, these traits illustrate distinct pathways within the SCC-growth framework. Although optimism and self-esteem are key components of resilience, each trait contributes through distinct psychological mechanisms. By analyzing them separately, we gain insight into the specific roles these traits play in facilitating SCC’s influence on post-breakup growth. This approach allows a more nuanced view of how resilience is composed of diverse elements that function together yet maintain unique effects. Given the observed positive correlation between SCC and resilience, alongside the characteristics of self-esteem, grit, and optimism that exemplify resilience following a breakup, it can be posited that SCC is intricately connected to favorable post-breakup adjustment mediated through these specific traits. Understanding the relationship between SCC and these resilience-related traits can help explain the connection between SCC and post-breakup growth. The hypotheses are:

H2: Self-esteem mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth.

H3: Grit mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth.

H4: Optimism mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth.

H5: Resilience mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth.

The conceptual framework is shown below Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Conceptual framework.

Methods

Participants and Procedures

All study procedures were approved by the ethics review board of the affiliated institution, and the questionnaire was administered from May 23rd to May 26th, 2023. Participants were recruited using Wenjuanxing, a Chinese questionnaire distribution platform that ensures a large and diverse sample population, thereby enhancing randomness and reliability. Given that individuals under 30 are more likely to be unmarried (Ren, 2023), the platform was instructed to invite respondents aged 18 to 30. Eligibility was restricted to individuals who had undergone a romantic breakup in the past 12 months.

The survey began with an overview of the study’s objectives and procedures. Participants had to read and agree to the terms before proceeding, with the option to withdraw at any point. Submission of a completed questionnaire was considered informed consent. Only fully completed surveys were accepted, and each participant was permitted to submit only one questionnaire, tracked by IP address. All the surveys passed the quality check and proved to be valid.

At the start of the questionnaire, demographic data were gathered, including sex (male, female) and age, duration of the previous relationship, time elapsed since the breakup, initiator of the breakup, current relationship status, relationship quality, and the level of self-loss post-breakup (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Demographic and relationship-related characteristics of study participants.

The sample consisted of 306 individuals who had recently gone through a breakup within the past year. The gender distribution was nearly balanced, with 51.63% male and 48.37% female participants. The age distribution was relatively balanced, with respondents aged 18 to 24 making up nearly half of the sample and those aged 25 to 29 accounting for about one-third.

Regarding the duration of previous relationships, the majority (61.44%) lasted between 6 months and over 2 years. Most participants (49.67%) reported that the breakup occurred 3 to 6 months prior to the survey. In terms of relationship quality, 59.15% of participants considered their previous relationship to be of high quality, while 40.85% considered it to be of low quality. Post-breakup, the majority of participants (75.98%) reported experiencing some level of self or identity loss. The initiator of the breakup was evenly distributed among participants, with 35.62% initiating the breakup themselves, 24.51% initiated by the partner, and 39.87% being a mutual decision. In terms of current relationship status, the majority of participants (47.39%) were in a new romantic or marital relationship, 33.33% were single, 12.09% had reconciled with their ex-partner, and 7.19% indicated other relationship statuses.

Measures

In this study, positive post-breakup adjustment was measured using the short form of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (Cann et al., 2010), which includes 10 items assessed on a 6-point scale. A score of 0 signifies no change as a result of the breakup, whereas a score of 5 represents a substantial degree of change. The positive changes assessed encompass personal strength, improved relationships with others, new possibilities, spiritual transformation, and a greater appreciation of life. Items include “I have a greater appreciation for the value of my own life” (Cann et al., 2010).

SCC was assessed using the SCC Scale, a 12-item questionnaire developed by J. Campbell et al. (1996). Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me), with higher scores signifying greater SCC. Example items include statements such as having conflicting self-beliefs and having a clear overall sense of identity and self-awareness. Items include “In general, I have a clear sense of who I am and what I am” (J. Campbell et al., 1996).

Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965), which includes 10 items assessed on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem. One sample measures the belief that one is a person of worth comparable to others. Items include “I feel that I have a number of good qualities” (Rosenberg, 1965).

Grit was assessed using the Short Grit Scale (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), an eight-item measure of resilience when facing challenges. Participants assessed each item on a 5-point scale from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). The scale includes items related to sustained effort and unwavering consistency of interest. Items include “I finish whatever I begin” and “I am a hard worker” (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009).

Optimism was measured using the Life Orientation Test (Scheier et al., 1994), a 6-item scale where participants assess each item on a 5-point scale from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). One sample item measures the tendency always to be optimistic about the future. Items include “I always look on the bright side of things” (Scheier et al., 1994).

Resilience was assessed with a scale adapted from Smith et al. (2008), consisting of 6 items assessed on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). This scale measures the tendency to recover quickly after difficult times. Items include “I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times” (Smith et al., 2008).

For each measure, composite scores were calculated by averaging the scores of all items within that measure. This approach allowed for a standardized representation of each construct, facilitating direct comparisons between participants. For example, a participant’s score on the self-esteem scale reflects the mean of all item responses on that scale, with higher composite scores indicating a stronger presence of the measured attribute.

Results

The suitability of the research data for factor analysis was evaluated before conducting the analysis. The KMO value was found to be 0.920, which is significantly higher than the commonly accepted threshold of 0.6, indicating excellent data adequacy for factor analysis. This high KMO value suggests strong correlations among the variables, confirming their appropriateness for factor analysis. Additionally, the data passed Bartlett’s test of sphericity, yielding an approximate chi-square value of 4108.620 and a p-value of .000, well below the .05 level of significance. This further confirms that the research data is appropriate for conducting a factor analysis.

We tested the reliability and validity of the constructs and deleted items with factor loadings less than 0.6 and those lacking significance. These included two items from the Grit Scale, two items from the SCC Scale, and two items from the Self-esteem Scale. The removal of these items may be attributed to cultural differences and translation challenges. Therefore, removing certain items was necessary to ensure the accuracy and applicability of the constructs in our study. We acknowledge that such modifications may affect the comparability of our findings with studies using the original scales. However, these adjustments were essential to improve the face validity of the questionnaires within this specific cultural context, ensuring that participants’ responses accurately reflect the constructs under investigation.

Table 1 indicates that the constructs of Grit, Growth, Optimism, SCC, Self-Esteem, and Resilience exhibit internal consistency and converge effectively with their respective indicators, demonstrating robustness in measuring the intended constructs.

Table 1.

Internal Consistency and Convergent Validity.

Factor	Cronbach’s alpha	AVE	CR
Grit	.88	0.55	0.88
Growth	.92	0.53	0.92
Optimism	.88	0.56	0.88
SCC	.93	0.58	0.93
Self-esteem	.91	0.57	0.91
Resilience	.89	0.57	0.89

Table 2 presents the correlations among key variables. Optimism, resilience, self-esteem, SCC, and grit are all positively related to post-breakup growth. Specifically, posttraumatic growth is positively correlated with optimism (r = .23, p < .01), resilience (r = .30, p < .01), self-esteem (r = .41, p < .01), SCC (r = .35, p < .01), and grit (r = .21, p < .01).

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations Among Key Variables.

Variables	M	SD	Optimism	Resilience	Self-esteem	SCC	Grit	Growth
Optimism	3.84	0.99	1
Resilience	3.74	1.04	0.09	1
Self-esteem	3.82	0.96	0.15**	0.29**	1
SCC	3.75	0.97	0.23**	0.34**	0.66**	1
Grit	3.86	0.93	0.79**	0.11	0.17**	0.21**	1
Growth	4.46	1.04	0.23**	0.30**	0.41**	0.35**	0.21**	1

p < .05. **p < .01.

When analyzing the regression results, with “gender, age, the duration of the previous relationship, and the time elapsed since the breakup, who initiated the breakup, current relationship status, quality of the relationship, and the level of loss of self after breakup” as the independent variables and growth as the dependent variable, the model’s R-square value was found to be 0.02, indicating that these variables collectively account for 2.2% of the variance in growth. However, the F test conducted on the model yielded a non-significant result (F = 0.84, p > .05), suggesting that these independent variables do not significantly influence growth. Consequently, these variables are not considered as controlling variables, and further analysis regarding their specific impact on the dependent variable is not warranted.

Before proceeding with the main analysis, we examined the potential issue of multicollinearity among predictor variables using the variance inflation factor (VIF) and tolerance values. All VIF values were well below the conventional threshold of 5 (ranging from 1.144 to 2.646), and tolerance values were all above 0.2 (ranging from 0.378 to 0.874), indicating that multicollinearity was not a concern in this analysis. Specifically, the VIF values for each predictor were: grit (VIF = 2.636, tolerance = 0.379), optimism (VIF = 2.646, tolerance = 0.378), resilience (VIF = 1.144, tolerance = 0.874), self-esteem (VIF = 1.792, tolerance = 0.558), and self-concept clarity (VIF = 1.904, tolerance = 0.525). Additionally, the Durbin-Watson statistic of 2.039 was close to 2, suggesting no significant autocorrelation in the residuals.

Having confirmed the absence of multicollinearity, we proceeded with the hierarchical regression analysis. As shown in Table 3, this hierarchical regression analysis comprises five models. For Model 1, the R-squared value is 0.12 (F = 42.97, p < .05), indicating that SCC explains 12.4% of the variance in growth, thereby supporting H1: SCC is positively related to post-breakup growth.

Table 3.

Independent Regression Analysis for Each Mediator Predicting Post-Breakup Growth.

Variables	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
Constant	3.04** (13.60)	2.56** (10.73)	2.54** (9.12)	2.57** (10.03)	2.55** (8.78)
SCC	0.38** (6.56)	0.15* (2.02)	0.34**(5.81)	0.30** (5.05)	0.35** (5.92)
Self-esteem		0.35** (4.66)
Optimism			0.17**(2.92)
Resilience				0.20** (3.57)
Grit					0.16** (2.61)
R ²	0.12	0.18	0.15	0.16	0.14
Adjusted R²	0.12	0.18	0.14	0.15	0.14
F	F(1, 304) = 42.97, p = .000	F(2, 303) = 33.78, p = .000	F (2,303) = 26.27, p = .000	F (2,303) = 28.70,p = .00	F(2, 303) = 25.30, p = .00
ΔR²	0.12	0.06	0.02	0.04	0.02
ΔF	F(1, 304) = 42.97, p = .000	F(1, 303) = 21.67,p = .000	F (1,303) = 8.51,p = .004	F (1,303) = 12.76,p = .00	F(1, 303) = 6.81,p = .01

Note. Dependent variable: Growth.

p < .05. **p < .01.

In Model 2, after adding self-esteem to the variables in Model 1, the change in the F value is significant (p < .05), indicating that the inclusion of self-esteem provides additional explanatory power. The R-squared value increases from 0.15 to 0.18, meaning that self-esteem accounts for an additional 5.8% of growth variance. Specifically, the regression coefficient for self-esteem is 0.35, showing significance (t = 4.66, p = .000 < .01), indicating that self-esteem significantly positively impacts growth.

In Model 3, when optimism is added alongside SCC as an independent variable, there is a significant change in the F-value (p < .05), indicating that incorporating optimism enhances the model’s explanatory power. The R-squared value increases from 0.12 to 0.15, showing that optimism accounts for an additional 2.4% of the variance in growth. The regression coefficient for optimism is 0.17, with statistical significance (t = 2.92, p = .004 < .01), underscoring optimism’s positive and meaningful influence on post-breakup growth.

In Model 4, when resilience is added alongside SCC as an independent variable, there is a significant change in the F-value (p < .05), suggesting that incorporating resilience strengthens the model’s explanatory power. The R-squared value rises from 0.12 to 0.16, indicating that resilience accounts for an additional 3.5% of the variation in growth. The regression coefficient for resilience is 0.200, with high statistical significance (t = 3.57, p = .000 < .01), which highlights resilience’s positive and impactful role in post-breakup growth.

For Model 5, which adds grit to SCC as an independent variable, the F-value change is significant (p < .05), indicating that adding grit provides explanatory power to the model. The R-squared value increases from 0.12 to 0.14, meaning that grit accounts for an additional 1.9% of the variance in growth. Specifically, the regression coefficient for grit is 0.16 and is statistically significant (t = 2.61, p = .010 < .01), showing that grit also has a significant positive effect on post-breakup growth.

In the independent mediation analysis, grit shows a significant effect as a mediator between SCC and growth, suggesting it may influence post-breakup adjustment under specific conditions. However, in the combined hierarchical regression model, grit’s mediation effect becomes non-significant. As shown in Table 4, in which hierarchical regression analysis comprises five models. In Model 1, SCC alone explains 12.4% of growth variance (R² = 0.12, F = 42.97, p < .05), supporting Hypothesis 1 that SCC is positively related to post-breakup growth. In Model 2, adding self-esteem significantly increases explanatory power, raising R² from .12 to .18, accounting for an additional 5.8% of growth variance (β = .35, t = 4.66, p < .01). Model 3 enhances the model with resilience, explaining an additional 2.8% of variance (R² = 0.21, β = .18, t = 3.26, p < .01), indicating a significant positive impact on growth. In Model 4, optimism contributes an additional 2.3% to variance explained (R² = 0.23, β = .16, t = 3.01, p < .01). This analysis reveals the positive effects of multiple factors on growth. In Model 5, after adding grit to the variables included in Model 4, the change in the F value is insignificant (ΔF = 0.03, Δp = 0.86 > 0.05), indicating that the addition of grit does not significantly explain the model. The R-squared value remains unchanged, close to 0. Thus, H3: Grit mediates the relationship of SCC, and positive post-breakup adjustment is rejected.

Table 4.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression by Sets Predicting Post-Breakup Growth.

Variables	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
Constant	3.04** (13.60)	2.56** (10.73)	2.17** (8.24)	1.69** (5.54)	1.68** (5.33)
SCC	0.38** (6.56)	0.15* (2.02)	0.10 (1.32)	0.06 (0.83)	0.06 (0.83)
Self-Esteem	-	0.35** (4.66)	0.33** (4.41)	0.33** (4.46)	0.33** (4.43)
Resilience	-	-	0.18** (3.26)	0.18** (3.27)	0.18** (3.26)
Optimism	-	-	-	0.16** (3.01)	0.15 (1.75)
Grit	-	-	-	-	0.02 (0.18)
R ²	0.12	0.18	0.21	0.23	0.23
Adjusted R²	0.12	0.18	0.20	0.22	0.22
F	F(1, 304) = 42.97, p = .000	F(2, 303) = 33.78, p = .00	F (3, 302) = 26.78, p = .00	F (4, 301) = 22.88, p = .00	F (5, 300) = 18.25, p = .00
ΔR²	0.12	0.06	0.03	0.02	0
ΔF	F(1, 304) = 42.97, p = .000	F(1, 303) = 21.67,p = .000	F (1, 302) = 10.63, p = .00	F (1, 301) = 9.03, p = .00	F (1, 300) = 0.03, p = .86

Note. Dependent variable: Growth.

p < .05. **p < .01.

This change suggests that grit’s effect on growth may overlap with other resilience-related factors, such as self-esteem, resilience, and optimism, which are more directly relevant to the context of post-breakup growth.

The mediation analysis explored the impacts of SCC on growth through the mediators optimism, resilience, and self-esteem. The results shown in Table 5 indicate that the total effect of SCC on growth was significant (c = 0.378, p < .01). The mediation effects through optimism (a * b = 0.039, p < .01), resilience (a * b = 0.074, p < .01), and self-esteem (a * b = 0.228, p < .05) were also significant. After including these mediators, the direct effects (c’) were reduced but remained significant for optimism (c’ = 0.339, p < .01) and Resilience (c’ = 0.304, p < .01), while for self-esteem, the direct effect was lower but remained significant (c’ = 0.150, p < .05). These findings suggest that optimism, resilience, and self-esteem partially mediate the relation between SCC and growth, with self-esteem having the highest mediation proportion. Thus, H2 (Self-esteem mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth), H4 (Optimism mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth), and H5 (Resilience mediates the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth) are supported.

Table 5.

Summary of Mediation Analysis Results.

Path	Total Effect (c)	a	B	a * b (Mediation effect)	c’ (Direct effect)	Proportion mediated
SCC=>optimism=>growth	0.38**	0.23**	0.17**	0.04	0.34**	10.19%
SCC=>resilience=>growth	0.38**	0.37**	0.20**	0.07	0.30**	19.49%
SCC=>self-esteem=>growth	0.38**	0.66**	0.35**	0.23	0.15*	60.38%

p < .05. **p < .01, Bootstrap percentile method.

Figures 3 to 5 show that resilience, optimism, and self-esteem exhibited mediation effects, highlighting their role in the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth. This suggests that individuals with higher SCC may experience greater growth due to enhanced resilience, optimism, and self-esteem. The mediation effects of self-esteem and optimism were particularly pronounced, with self-esteem accounting for 60.381% and optimism for 10.194% of the total effect, indicating their significant explanatory power in the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth. This notable mediation can be attributed to SCC’s influence on individuals’ self-perceptions and evaluations, which in turn affect their emotional states and motivation. A well-defined self-concept is likely to engender heightened self-esteem and more positive emotional states, both of which are essential for cultivating growth-oriented responses to challenges and adversity. Consequently, self-esteem and optimism serve as critical mediators in this dynamic, elucidating a significant portion of SCC’s impact on post-breakup growth. Moreover, resilience, characterized by the capacity to rebound from setbacks swiftly, aligns well with the influence of SCC on personal development, thereby further illuminating the mechanisms through which SCC facilitates growth.

Figure 3.

Mediation of the SCC-growth relationship by optimism.

Figure 4.

Mediation of the SCC-growth relationship by self-esteem.

Figure 5.

Mediation of the SCC-growth relationship by resilience.

Discussion

SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Self-concept clarity plays a pivotal role in psychological well-being (Light, 2017; McIntyre et al., 2017) and demonstrates a negative correlation with various mental health issues, such as depression (Hertel et al., 2024) and prolonged grief disorder (Boelen et al., 2012). This association may arise from SCC’s capacity to facilitate effective self-regulation and goal pursuit, thereby enhancing overall well-being (Welt & Bassellier, 2023 ).

Our findings are consistent with prior research that underscores SCC’s significance in influencing individuals’ responses to the termination of romantic relationships (Arana et al., 2024; Lewandowski & Bizzoco, 2007). Unlike previous studies, this research positions SCC as an active agent in resilience building, showing that SCC can uniquely drive resilience-related traits like optimism and self-esteem, creating a structured pathway for positive growth post-breakup. To support our model’s structure, we emphasize that SCC may initiate resilience by fostering a stable self-view, which is fundamental for recovering from identity disruption post-breakup. In this context, resilience serves as a mediator between SCC and post-breakup growth, as individuals with greater SCC may utilize resilience to stabilize and strengthen their self-concept during recovery. In our model, resilience mediates between SCC and growth due to the strong theoretical backing of SCC’s impact on emotional stability (Hong et al., 2022; Lodi-Smith & Crocetti, 2017; Parise et al., 2019). This perspective offers new insights into the multifaceted role of SCC in enhancing resilience, providing theoretical and practical implications for facilitating post-breakup recovery.

Resilience as a Mediator Between SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Resilience encompasses more than the ability to continue developing skills despite adversity or to shield oneself from the impact of external circumstances. It involves the capacity to respond positively to difficulties, transforming them into opportunities for growth (Sisto et al., 2019). Resilience is also a dynamic process, evolving as individuals find new balance and develop positively (Stainton et al., 2019). Given the established connection between SCC and resilience (Lassri et al., 2023; Liang et al., 2022), interventions targeting SCC may offer a structured way to foster resilience, self-esteem, and optimism, thereby reducing the negative effects of relationship dissolution. This study thus suggests a unique approach to enhancing emotional resilience through SCC, providing individuals with an adaptable tool for psychological adjustment. By emphasizing SCC’s role in resilience, this approach opens pathways for therapeutic practices aimed at fostering positive adjustment and growth after relationship challenges.

Previous studies have presented contrasting views on the relationship between psychological resilience and posttraumatic growth. Some researchers (Atay et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2024) have posited that individuals with high psychological resilience may not experience significant posttraumatic growth, as they are less likely to be profoundly affected by trauma or to undergo substantial alterations in their cognitive schemas. Conversely, other research has demonstrated a positive correlation between resilience and posttraumatic growth (Kianfar-Jagoda, 2023; Wan et al., 2022).

Our findings contribute to this discourse by indicating that resilience plays a crucial role in post-breakup growth, suggesting that resilient individuals are better equipped to adapt and thrive following the dissolution of a romantic relationship. The differing results in the relationship between resilience and posttraumatic growth may depend on the type of adversity or trauma experienced. In the context of a breakup, resilience is positively associated with posttraumatic growth.

In this study, psychological resilience is examined as a mediating variable to understand the effect of social support on post-breakup growth. The findings suggest that high psychological resilience during the breakup process enables individuals to handle challenges better, thereby fostering growth. People with elevated levels of psychological resilience are more capable of managing the negative emotions resulting from a breakup. They can approach the breakup with a positive outlook, allowing them to overcome painful feelings more swiftly. Post-breakup, these individuals can process their emotions more effectively and regain their footing sooner. Mental toughness also encourages positive thinking and personal growth after a breakup. Those with strong psychological resilience often view breakups as learning opportunities, seeking self-improvement through reflection. They gain valuable insights from the experience and discover better strategies for future relationships. Thus, individuals with high psychological resilience tend to recover from breakups more quickly and achieve greater personal growth (Ashkenazi, 2023).

Although high intercorrelations exist, such as between grit and optimism, this study aims to highlight their individual contributions to resilience. By analyzing them separately, we identify how each trait uniquely facilitates SCC’s influence on growth, providing insights that might be lost in aggregate measures. This approach enhances the nuanced understanding of resilience-related traits as mediators in the SCC-growth relationship. While self-esteem, grit, and optimism are highly correlated with resilience, examining them independently allows us to capture the unique contributions each trait makes to resilience and post-breakup growth. Although these variables are connected and may overlap, each reflects distinct psychological constructs: self-esteem reinforces stability in self-view, grit promotes sustained perseverance, and optimism fosters positive expectations for the future. Psychological theory suggests that closely related traits can have unique impacts within complex frameworks, as each trait interacts with SCC and resilience differently, thus playing a specific role within the SCC-growth pathway.

Optimism and Self-Esteem as Mediators Between SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Previous research has demonstrated that self-esteem, grit, and optimism, which are reflective of resilience, are associated with lower depression and rumination after a breakup (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). However, our findings indicate that grit does not mediate this relationship in our model. While grit and resilience are related concepts, both describing the ability to persevere through difficulties (Stoffel & Cain, 2018), the Short Grit Scale (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) measures maintaining consistent interests and sustained endeavor toward long-range goals, typically in work or study. In contrast, the resilience scale (Smith et al., 2008) assesses the ability to recover from stress. Therefore, grit does not play a significant part in the relationship between SCC and post-breakup growth.

Optimism, a key trait that reflects resiliency (Connor & Davidson, 2003), logically serves as a mediator between SCC and post-breakup growth, similar to resilience. Individuals with high levels of optimism exhibit fewer depressive symptoms after the breakup (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). This might be because optimistic individuals may perceive a breakup as an opportunity for positive change, thereby facilitating positive adjustment. Although previous studies have not directly linked optimism to SCC, the close relationship between SCC and resilience suggests that optimism is likely related to SCC as well, explaining its role as a mediator.

Our study aligns with previous evidence showing associations between self-esteem and resilience (Mouatsou & Koutra, 2023; Trong Dam et al., 2023) and demonstrates that SCC is associated with positive post-breakup adjustment through the mediation of self-esteem. High self-esteem can mitigate the impact of stressful events and failures (e.g., Blossom et al., 2020; O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Individuals with low self-esteem or grit tend to experience elevated levels of distress after a breakup, including more severe depressive symptoms and rumination (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Individuals with high self-esteem tend to form more positive judgments about others compared to those with low self-esteem (Wirkkala, 2019), enabling them to adjust positively after a breakup. SCC and self-esteem are closely related constructs (Weber et al., 2023). Affective evaluation of oneself is closely related to descriptive self-knowledge (Bortolan, 2023). Individuals possessing a clear self-concept are better equipped to accurately assess their self-worth, which in turn enhances their self-esteem—the extent to which individuals have a positive perception of and acceptance of themselves. Consequently, it is plausible to propose that self-esteem serves as a mediator in the relationship between self-concept clarity and positive post-breakup adjustment. This mediation suggests that the clarity with which individuals perceive their self-concept can significantly influence their capacity for positive adjustment following the dissolution of a romantic relationship, primarily through the enhancement of self-esteem.

These findings provide a basis for SCC-centered therapeutic practices after romantic breakups, demonstrating how SCC helps build resilience and support positive adjustment pathways (O’Sullivan et al., 2019). Integrating SCC-enhancing strategies into post-breakup therapy could aid individuals in fostering adaptive emotional responses, reducing risks of prolonged emotional distress. The findings of this study are particularly relevant within the context of Chinese society, where interpersonal relationships and SCC play distinctive roles. In Chinese culture, relationships are often characterized by interdependence, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and adjust after romantic dissolution. The strong emphasis on collective identity in China links self-worth and resilience to social relationships and family expectations, which shapes self-esteem and SCC in ways distinct from Western societies (Tian et al., 2018).

In the Chinese collectivist context, high SCC manifests differently from Western contexts. Rather than maintaining a singular, consistent self-concept, individuals with high SCC in Chinese culture demonstrate a clear understanding of their multiple social roles while effectively balancing personal aspirations with familial and social obligations (Zhang, 2016). These cultural factors suggest that the pathways through which SCC affects resilience and optimism may differ in China, where SCC reflects the ability to maintain clear self-knowledge while adapting to different social contexts and reinforcing interpersonal harmony and relationships (Jia et al., 2022). Therefore, our results provide insights into the cultural dimensions of SCC, resilience, and optimism, offering a foundation for developing culturally sensitive interventions that effectively address the unique interpersonal dynamics and collective values prevalent in Chinese society, particularly in post-breakup counseling and therapy practice.

Limitations, Future Directions and Implications

It is important to acknowledge several limitations of this study. Firstly, the reliance on self-reported questionnaires inherently carries limitations, including potential biases in self-perception and reporting accuracy. Additionally, the sample consisted exclusively of Chinese students, which restricts how far the results may be used. To verify our findings, future research should duplicate this study in a variety of cultural contexts.

One limitation of this study is the modification of certain items from standardized questionnaires to better suit cultural norms. While these adjustments were necessary to improve response validity, they may limit the comparability of our findings with research using unaltered versions of the scales. Future studies should consider alternative approaches to cultural adaptation, such as using translation-validation processes, to enhance cross-cultural comparability.

Moreover, several variables such as gender, age, the length of the prior relationship, the time elapsed since the breakup, who initiated the breakup, current relationship status, quality of the relationship, and the level of loss of self after the breakup did not show significant effects within our model. These variables need further examination in future studies to better understand their roles and impacts.

Due to the cross-sectional nature of our data, the potential for alternative causal pathways exists, such as resilience moderating rather than mediating the relationship between SCC and growth. For instance, individuals high in resilience may exhibit a stronger connection between SCC and positive adjustment post-breakup. Future longitudinal studies could test for alternative model structures, such as examining resilience as a moderating variable, to clarify the specific role resilience plays in the SCC-growth relationship.

Our findings indicated that demographic variables (e.g., participant sex, relationship quality, and breakup initiator) did not significantly predict growth. However, these variables could potentially moderate the relationships in our model. For example, the SCC-growth relationship might vary based on who initiated the breakup. Future research should consider these variables as potential moderators in diverse samples, as they could provide nuanced insights into the factors influencing positive adjustment.

Looking ahead, future research should explore other self-concept-related variables, such as self-complexity, or psychological factors, such as cognitive flexibility, to determine their relationship with post-breakup adjustment. This could offer a more thorough understanding of the psychological mechanisms that facilitate positive adjustment after a breakup and identify additional targets for intervention. Additionally, future studies should consider replicating our findings in diverse cultural contexts and with different age groups to enhance the generalizability of the results.

These findings contribute to an advanced understanding of the complex psychological mechanisms that drive positive adjustment post-breakup, including how SCC-based interventions could specifically bolster emotional resilience and coping abilities in affected individuals. The insights from this study have significant implications for counseling and therapeutic practices. By highlighting the crucial role of self-concept clarity in promoting resilience and positive adjustment after a breakup, our research suggests that interventions focused on enhancing self-concept clarity could be effective in helping individuals cope with the challenges of relationship dissolution. Counselors and therapists working with clients who have experienced a breakup may consider incorporating strategies to improve self-concept clarity, such as self-reflection exercises, goal-setting activities, and techniques to foster a more coherent and stable sense of self. For example, a therapist could guide clients through a self-concept mapping exercise, where they explore various aspects of their identity and how these aspects relate to one another. This process can help clients develop a clearer understanding of their core values, beliefs, and goals, thereby strengthening their self-concept clarity.

This study advances the understanding of the psychological factors involved in post-breakup recovery and underscores the interconnected nature of SCC, resilience, self-esteem, and optimism in promoting positive outcomes. Furthermore, the mediating roles of resilience, self-esteem, and optimism underscore the importance of addressing these factors in post-breakup counseling. Therapeutic approaches that aim to bolster resilience, enhance self-esteem, and promote optimism may be particularly beneficial in facilitating positive adjustment and personal growth following a breakup. For instance, cognitive-behavioral techniques that challenge negative self-beliefs and promote positive self-talk can be used to enhance self-esteem. Similarly, interventions that focus on identifying and developing personal strengths, such as character strength interventions, can foster resilience and optimism.

Our study offers a novel perspective on the intricate relationships among SCC, resilience, self-esteem, and optimism in fostering psychological resilience and personal growth after breakups. These insights highlight how targeted enhancements in SCC could contribute to positive outcomes by strengthening self-esteem and cultivating an optimistic mindset. By integrating these findings into their practice, mental health professionals can develop more targeted and effective interventions to support individuals navigating the challenges of relationship dissolution.

Conclusion

The present study investigated the relationship between SCC and positive adjustment after a breakup, with a particular focus on the mediating roles of resilience, self-esteem, and optimism. Our findings underscore the pivotal role of self-concept clarity in facilitating not only recovery but also sustained personal growth following the dissolution of romantic relationships. This suggests that individuals with higher SCC may develop enhanced resilience pathways that enable them to adapt positively to the emotional challenges associated with breakups. Specifically, resilience, self-esteem, and optimism emerged as crucial mediators that delineate distinct pathways for how SCC promotes emotional stability, personal confidence, and adaptive coping skills following a breakup. These pathways reflect SCC’s impact on fostering a stronger sense of self-worth and an optimistic outlook in individuals. Both self-esteem and optimism, which are intimately connected to resilience, significantly contribute to this adjustment process, underscoring their essential role in fostering psychological resilience.

Footnotes

The authors declare that there are no specific individuals or institutions to acknowledge for contributions to this research.

ORCID iD

Xiaofan Yue

Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by Huangshan University Ethics Committee on May 23,2024.

Consent to Participate

The survey commenced with an explanation of the study’s purpose and protocol. Participants had to read and agree to the terms before proceeding,with the option to withdraw at any point. Submission of a completed questionnaire was considered informed consent.

Author Contributions Statement

Xiaofan Yue was responsible for conceptualization,data curation,formal analysis,investigation,methodology,validation,visualization,writing – original draft.

Xin Cui was responsible for project administration,resources,software,supervision,writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The dataset is available at the following link:

(DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.25911340)

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Psychological Factors Related to Positive Post-Breakup Adjustment: The Roles of Self-Concept Clarity,Resilience,Self-Esteem,and Optimism

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Literature Review

Self-Concept Clarity After the Breakup

SCC and Psychological Resilience

Methods

Participants and Procedures

Measures

Results

Discussion

SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Resilience as a Mediator Between SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Optimism and Self-Esteem as Mediators Between SCC and Post-Breakup Growth

Limitations, Future Directions and Implications

Conclusion

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Ethical Considerations

Consent to Participate

Author Contributions Statement

Funding

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Data Availability Statement

References