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Abstract

Recreation spaces, as vital components of urban environments, support entertainment, relaxation, and social interaction. As a World Heritage city, Macao faces distinct challenges such as land scarcity, ecological pressures, and traffic congestion. This study identifies sustainable design strategies for recreation spaces to inform Macao’s urban development. Grounded in ecological perception theory, GIS technology is employed to analyze the spatial distribution characteristics of recreation spaces, while grounded theory is applied to 27 online travel narratives to extract key factors influencing tourist satisfaction. A theoretical model of influencing factors and satisfaction pathways is developed and empirically validated using structured questionnaires and structural equation modeling (SEM). The results show that Macao’s recreation spaces exhibit a pattern of both concentration and dispersion. Three primary dimensions—physical environment, environmental perception, and cultural esthetic elements—are found to influence recreational satisfaction significantly and positively. Furthermore, a chain mediating effect among these dimensions is identified, revealing that the physical environment impacts satisfaction indirectly through environmental perception and cultural esthetics. This study offers practical guidance for the continuous enhancement of Macao’s recreational spaces and proposes a novel integrated model combining ecological, perceptual, and cultural esthetic perspectives. The findings also provide valuable theoretical insights for the planning and optimization of recreational spaces in other urban settings. This study provides not only practical design guidance for the continuous improvement of recreational spaces in Macao but also a new model combining ecological, perceptual and cultural esthetic perspectives for the research and planning of recreational spaces in other cities.

Plain language summary

Purpose: This study focuses on the design and effectiveness of recreational spaces in Macao, an urban heritage city facing challenges such as land shortages, environmental pressures, and traffic congestion. The aim is to identify sustainable strategies for future development of Macao’s recreational spaces. Methods: Using ecological perception theory as a foundation, the study examines Macao’s recreational spaces with GIS technology to analyze their characteristics. Additionally, 27 online travel notes were reviewed and summarized using grounded theory to identify factors influencing tourist satisfaction. Based on these findings, a theoretical model of factors affecting recreational satisfaction was developed. A questionnaire was then designed according to this model and its validity was tested through structural equation modeling. Conclusions: The study found that Macao’s recreational spaces exhibit a pattern of both concentration and dispersion. Factors influencing recreational satisfaction fall into three main categories: the physical environment, environmental perception, and cultural esthetic elements, all of which are positively correlated. The research also revealed a chain mediating effect, indicating that the physical environment influences recreational satisfaction through environmental perception and cultural esthetics. This emphasizes the importance of multilevel mediating effects in enhancing environmental management and recreational experiences. Implications: The findings highlight the need for carefully designed recreational spaces that consider the interconnectedness of physical environment, perception, and cultural esthetics to improve user satisfaction and sustainable urban development. Limitations: The study focuses on tourist satisfaction and may not fully account for local residents’ experiences. Further research could expand on these findings to include a broader range of perspectives.

Keywords

Macao ecological perception theory recreation space sustainability grounded theory

Introduction

With the acceleration of urbanization, urban recreation spaces—including parks, squares, and greenways—have become essential components for enhancing residents’ quality of life, promoting social cohesion, and maintaining ecological balance. Well-designed recreation spaces not only provide venues for leisure and interaction but also contribute to microclimate regulation, urban resilience, and landscape esthetics (Buchecker & Degenhardt, 2015; Soyinka et al., 2021; Tzoulas et al., 2007). However, most existing studies focus on low- to medium-density urban areas where land resources are relatively abundant, limiting their applicability to cities with extreme spatial constraints.

In contrast, the Macao Special Administrative Region (Macao SAR, China) presents a unique urban context. As a highly urbanized and land-scarce World Heritage city, Macao grapples with intensified spatial competition, ecological vulnerabilities, and mounting demands for public spaces from both residents and tourists (Meng et al., 2020; Yin et al., 2023). Additionally, Macao’s rich historical and cultural legacy requires recreation spaces to simultaneously serve community needs and reinforce cultural identity. Addressing these multifaceted challenges has become a critical agenda, particularly under the policy framework outlined in the Second Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the Macao SAR (2021–2025), which emphasizes building sustainable, smart, and resilient cities.

To meet these challenges, recent research on urban green spaces has increasingly adopted interdisciplinary approaches, integrating insights from ecology, urban planning, sociology, and public health. For example, Stanford et al. (2025) evaluated the contribution of informal green spaces to urban biodiversity through crowdsourced survey data, emphasizing public participation in ecosystem management. Addas (2023) examined how integrating green spaces into smart city designs enhances residents’ well-being, proposing “green laboratories” as hubs for sustainable urban living. Similarly, Fekete and Abuhayya (2023) highlighted how natural elements within urban spaces foster visitors’ sense of belonging and psychological welfare. Collectively, these studies underscore the necessity of designing recreation spaces that balance ecological, social, and cultural dimensions to advance broader urban sustainability goals.

Despite these developments, a critical gap remains in the current literature. While previous studies have explored either the physical characteristics of recreational spaces or users’ perceptual experiences individually, few have systematically integrated physical, perceptual, and cultural factors within a cohesive framework, especially in high-density, culturally rich urban environments like Macao. Moreover, the complex interplay between spatial design, environmental perception, and cultural esthetics remains insufficiently addressed, limiting efforts to optimize both ecological functionality and user satisfaction.

Building on this gap, this study proposes an interdisciplinary approach combining spatial analysis, ecological perception theory, and cultural esthetic evaluation to guide the sustainable design of recreational spaces. Ecological perception theory, which emphasizes the mutual relationship between individuals and their environments (Gibson, 1979), offers a valuable framework for understanding how users perceive, interact with, and derive satisfaction from urban spaces. Recent studies have also highlighted the importance of designing sustainable recreation environments that not only support ecological and economic functions but also enhance human experience (Pagano et al., 2021; Wan & Li, 2013).

Accordingly, this study aims to explore sustainable recreation space design strategies in Macao from the perspective of ecological perception theory. Specifically, it seeks to (1) assess the applicability of ecological perception theory in dense urban environments, (2) identify key factors influencing recreation satisfaction from the tourist perspective, and (3) construct and validate a recreation satisfaction model through mixed-methods research, combining geospatial analysis and user narratives. By integrating ecological psychology, spatial analysis, and user-centered evaluation, this study offers a novel interdisciplinary framework for enhancing the sustainability, livability, and cultural richness of urban recreation spaces.

Recent studies on sustainable urban design and (eco)-perception largely examine parks, green spaces, and waterfronts—often in newly planned or naturalized settings (Vanhöfen et al., 2025), whereas work in densely urbanized, heritage-rich contexts remains comparatively limited and tends to emphasize conservation and regeneration frameworks rather than ecological perception per se (J. Chen et al., 2024). This research addresses that gap by extending ecological perception theory to the unique case of Macao, where spatial, cultural, and ecological demands intersect within a highly constrained urban fabric. By integrating big data from travel notes with spatial analysis, the findings advance theoretical understandings of how ecological perception operates in compact historic cities, while also offering practical strategies to guide the sustainable design of urban recreation spaces in similar contexts.

Literature Review

Research on Ecological Perception Theory

The theory of ecological perception, proposed by psychologist Gibson (1979), targets the interaction between animals (including people) and the environment and recognizes the environment from the ecological perspective in three dimensions—medium, entity and surface. The theory of ecological perception comprises two viewpoints: direct perception and availability. Since its inception, the theory of ecological perception has been important in the fields of psychology and environmental design, as it emphasizes the role of the direct perception of environmental information in guiding human behavior and provides a unique perspective for urban planning and design (X. Wang et al., 2016). With the advancement of sustainable development and ecocity construction, the application of ecological perception theory in urban planning and design has attracted the attention of an increasing number of scholars and practitioners.

In previous studies, urban ecological design and planning research has focused on ecosystem services, adapting to natural disasters, and restoring degraded cities to achieve positive change (Steiner, 2014). With respect to the application of ecological perception theory, the process of designing ecosystem services, social ecosystems, resilience, biodiversity, landscape and green infrastructure must form a new type that sustainability and ecological urban planning and design paradigms are integrated with (X. Wang et al., 2016). Recent studies have also combined knowledge in the fields of urban planning, urban design and cognitive psychology to explore the consistency and differences between the planning, vision and perception of urban greening (Yang et al., 2022). In addition, ecological networks and ecological connectivity theory have been applied to urban planning to enhance the connectivity and biodiversity of urban ecosystems (Kirk et al., 2022). Therefore, how to effectively integrate ecosystem services and improve urban ecological resilience in the context of rapid urban development and how to better reflect the principles of ecological perception theory in planning practice are research directions that must be further explored.

Recreation Space and Sustainability

The acceleration of urbanization has led to profound transformations in urban spatial systems. Providing sufficient recreation spaces has been shown to enhance social inclusiveness and promote social interaction (De Haas et al., 2021). However, definitions of recreation space vary among scholars. Williams (1995) conceptualized urban public spaces primarily from a recreational perspective, emphasizing types, hierarchical characteristics, and major functions. In contrast, W. Feng (2006) proposed a broader view, regarding recreational space as a coupled system between material urban recreation spaces and socio-economic recreation spaces. Ji-Gang (2009) further pointed out that there remains no unified standard for defining recreation space, highlighting the complexity and evolving nature of the concept. Synthesizing these viewpoints, this study adopts an inclusive definition that aligns with both Chinese and international scholars: recreational spaces are accessible to most urban residents, equipped with public facilities, and designed to satisfy needs for entertainment, leisure, social interaction, and shopping under public supervision. Numerous studies have emphasized that well-designed urban recreation spaces not only provide opportunities for relaxation but also contribute to ecological functions—such as improving urban microclimates, air quality, and biodiversity (Tzoulas et al., 2007)—while strengthening neighborhood ties and promoting social cohesion (Francis et al., 2012; Ye et al., 2024).

Sustainability, broadly defined as the coordinated development among economic, social, and environmental systems (Li & Yi, 2020; Y. Zhang et al., 2023), has become central to urban development. In this context, recreation spaces play a vital yet vulnerable role (Z. Chen et al., 2023; D. Zhang & Chen, 2021). Although previous research has explored aspects such as physical activity and health outcomes within recreational spaces (Venter et al., 2021), studies integrating users’ perceptual experiences into sustainable spatial design remain limited. Building on this gap, this study shifts focus toward tourists’ experiential perceptions, integrating ecological perception theory to better understand how users interact with recreation spaces and derive satisfaction. By bridging environmental characteristics with users’ cognitive and emotional responses, ecological perception provides a holistic framework to guide sustainable design practices, ensuring that recreation spaces not only serve functional and ecological roles but also meet users’ experiential and psychological needs.

Current Situation of Recreation Space in Macao

The small area of the Macao Special Administrative Region, scarce land, and the topography of many mountains and hills jointly shape the layout of recreational spaces developed according to the terrain. In Macao, the competition between land use demand and various land uses has intensified the challenges of urban recreation space design and urban sustainable development (Pinheiro & Wan, 2022). Shi et al. (2022) discussed the activation design of Macao peninsula streets based on Industry 4.0 and a communication model, aiming to make better use of these spaces, compensating for the insufficient function of the streets and increase their vitality. Qi and Chen (2019) analyzed the perception of destination image of mainland Chinese tourists of Macao, and found that most mainland Chinese tourists regard Macao as the focus of atmosphere, leisure and entertainment, social environment, culture, history, art and infrastructure. These studies show that in a high-density urban environment, rationally utilizing and activating recreation spaces, improving the physical and mental health of residents and promoting sustainable urban development are the focus of current recreation space research in Macao. It is obvious that the study of recreational space in Macao involves many aspects, showing the efforts and challenges of urban recreational space planning and design in Macao, and providing important theoretical and practical basis for promoting urban sustainable development.

In addition to the academic studies, Macao’s local governance strategies also demonstrate a strong commitment to improving recreational spaces within a dense urban environment. The “Urban Master Plan of the Macao Special Administrative Region (2020–2040)” officially approved in 2022, emphasizes enhancing the accessibility, diversity, and ecological function of public open spaces, including parks and recreational areas. Moreover, the “Second Five-Year Plan for Economic and Social Development of the Macao Special Administrative Region (2021–2025)” explicitly outlines goals such as building a livable city, expanding green and recreation areas, and integrating urban resilience strategies into public space design. These governance frameworks underscore the importance of sustainable planning and recreational space optimization in supporting Macao’s urban resilience and public well-being goals. Therefore, integrating ecological perception theory into recreation space design aligns closely with Macao’s existing policy direction, strengthening the relevance of this study to practical urban development efforts.

Materials and Methods

The Geographical Scope of the Study

The Macao SAR. locates on the southeastern coast of China, west of the Pearl River Estuary, adjacent to Guangdong Province, and approximately 60 km from the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. It comprises the Macao Peninsula, Taipa Island and Road Island, with the total area expanding due to coastal reclamation. As of September 2023, its land area had expanded to 33.3 km² (Macao Cartography & Cadastral Bureau, 2023). Macao faces a series of challenges caused by urban fragmentation, such as traffic congestion, environmental pollution and constraints on the future development of the city. These problems have been further exacerbated by the dense urban layout and the expansion of land area through reclamation. Consequently, recreational spaces are not only the most intuitive place for Macao residents to contact with nature, but also an important part of Macao’s urban sustainable development. This study focuses on Macao and discusses how to achieve the sustainable design of recreation space through the tortuous spatial layout of its streets and alleys. Figure 1 shows the geographical scope of this study.

Figure 1.

Geographical scope of the study.

Data Collection Method

This study adopts a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods to ensure comprehensive and multidimensional insights into recreational space satisfaction in Macao SAR. The rationale for this methodological combination lies in the complexity of the research subject, which involves both spatial pattern analysis and subjective user perception. The research process consists of five steps, each selected to address specific research needs.

First, field investigations were conducted in the study area to obtain first-hand observations of the physical and functional characteristics of recreational spaces. This step ensures contextual understanding and supplements secondary data sources.

Second, open-source data—including Points of Interest (POI) and online travel narratives—were collected to capture both spatial attributes and users’ experiential perceptions. This combination allows the study to bridge objective spatial data with subjective user experiences.

Third, ArcGIS spatial analysis tools were employed to assess six key spatial functions: scenic spots, accommodation, sports and leisure, shopping, catering, and public facilities. GIS-based analysis provides a systematic and visual representation of recreational spatial distribution, supporting spatial planning decisions.

Fourth, grounded theory was applied to the online travel notes to inductively extract recurring themes and patterns related to tourist satisfaction. This qualitative method enables the construction of a theoretical model based on real user narratives, which is crucial for exploring perceptual and emotional dimensions.

Finally, a structural equation model (SEM) was used to test the hypothesized satisfaction model. SEM is particularly suitable for examining complex relationships between latent variables and validating theoretical models derived from qualitative findings.

Figure 2 illustrates the research design and shows how each step contributes to the development and validation of the proposed model. Together, this multi-step approach enhances the reliability, depth, and practical relevance of the findings.

Figure 2.

Flow chart of the method applied in this study.

Data Collection and Processing

Data Sources and Recreation Space Processing

The map information required for this study is obtained from the network data of Amap in June 2023. According to the classification standards of POI research (2012), for POI data within the scope of the Macao special administrative region, including food, life services, entertainment, hotel accommodation, and all 14 classes, including name, longitude, latitude, type, and location, 19,627 POI data points, are unified using the WGS _1984 coordinate system to avoid coordinate deviation caused by data error. According to the above definition of recreation space, 2,739 POI data points of 6 types, including scenic spots, accommodation services, sports and leisure, shopping, catering and public facilities, are selected as the characteristics of recreation space research (L. Zhang, 2012). Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of POI data in Macao, and Table 1 describes the classification system and the number of samples.

Figure 3.

Map showing the distribution of the POI data in the study area.

Table 1.

Classification System and Number of Samples in Macao.

POI type	Number of samples/one	POI type	Number of samples/one
Feature spot	591	Shopping	758
Accommodation services	494	Catering food & beverage	760
Sports leisure	80	Communal facilities	56

Data Sources and Treatment of Recreational Satisfaction

In tourism research, while a precise scholarly definition of “travel notes” is rare, related concepts offer useful guidance (Liang et al., 2021). Travel notes represent travelers’ perceptions of and experiences with the tourism environment and include travelers’ individual experiences with the tourism space and the process of constructing leisure memories (DeMatos et al., 2024). Recreation space includes the tourism space, and travel notes are the best source of information for exploring the recreation space experience from the perspective of tourists in the context of environmental psychology and the environment. To analyze travel notes, network travel notes are collected from April 13 to 15, 2023. The specific criteria for screening the travel notes are as follows: (1) Travel notes must have wide sources and comprehensive content, meaning that each note should describe a complete journey covering at least three distinct locations or attractions, include subjective perceptions (e.g., emotional responses, personal impressions) and objective descriptions (e.g., environmental features, service quality), and have a minimum length of 500 words. Notes that included multimedia elements (such as photographs) were considered particularly valuable for context enrichment; and (2) The content must be authentic and objective, excluding travel notes written by tourists sponsored by tourism websites or destinations, as well as promotional materials authored by tourism enterprises. This ensures that the perspectives captured reflect genuine visitor experiences rather than marketing narratives (Marine-Roig & Ferrer-Rosell, 2018). A total of 27 travel notes on China’s three well-known online travel sites (Zhao et al., 2021), Ctrip, met the criteria, and 18 met all the criteria. Table 2 lists the basic information of the samples.

Table 2.

Basic Information of the Online Travel Note Samples.

Number	Sex	Travel days	Area	Travel date	Theme
1	Woman	2	Guangzhou	2023.2.7 (working day)	Hello, Macao
2	Woman	5	Chengdu	2023.2.19 (working day)	Macao 5 days
3	Woman	2	Guangzhou	2022.6.24 (weekend)	Roaming Macao
4	Man	4	Chengdu	2023.3.23 (working day)	30,000 Steps to Macao: Walking Through the Streets to Find Delicious Food
5	Woman	2	Chengdu	2022.7.7 (working day)	Cin colorful Macao, feel the most beautiful fireworks and artistic customs this autumn
6	Woman	4	Shenzhen	2019.9.20 (weekend)	How to play in Macao?
7	Woman	3	Hangzhou	2019.1.4 (weekend)	Meet colorful Macao, about bestie to a Christmas trip
8	Woman	3	Yangzhou	2019.5.10 (weekend)	72 hr in Macao, the outlying island holiday life
9	Woman	2	Hong Kong	2021.4.24 (weekend)	With your family to explore Macao’s luxury and gourmet food
10	Woman	5	Beijing	2023.3.13 (working day)	Macao goodbye —— eat, drink and play for 5 days and 4 nights
11	Man	1	Qingdao	2022.12.11 (weekend)	Macao dragon ring Portuguese rhyme
12	Woman	4	Shanghai	2021.12.21 (Macao holiday)	Delicious, beautiful and fun in Macao
13	Woman	5	Beijing	2023.1.16 (working day)	City hiking in Macao —— first met Taipa
14	Woman	2	Guangzhou	2021.11.13 (weekend)	Check in Macao, the end of the year
15	Woman	4	Shanghai	2021.12.12 (weekend)	Let me 4 days and three nights for the heart is only Shanghai 193 one in Macao
16	Woman	5	Nanjin	2021.12.10 (weekend)	Winter Macao colorful tour
17	Woman	5	Beijing	2021.12.30 (working day)	Macao Christmas under the epidemic
18	Woman	4	Shanghai	2017 .2.18 (weekend)	Macao —— hidden in the gambling city after Portuguese charm

Data Analysis

Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Macao Recreation

In this study, the POI data were imported into a geographic information system (GIS) for nuclear density analysis (KDA), which revealed the distribution characteristics of recreational spaces in Macao. The results show that the distribution of recreational spaces in Macao has significant functional specificity and spatial agglomeration. Among them, the distribution of scenic spots is relatively scattered and concentrated in several specific areas. The area with the highest density is the dark green area, that is, the Kao Hall and Wangde Hall areas, which is consistent with the geographical location of the historical and cultural sites. A high density of these areas indicates a high recreational value and concentration of tourist activities. However, the dispersion of the attractions also indicates the possibility of further enhancing the value of other potential recreational points. The accommodation service reflects the characteristics of Macao as a world tourism and leisure center. High-density accommodation service areas highly overlap with famous tourist attractions and convenient transportation areas. The densest blocks indicate potential tourist hotspots and commercial development areas, particularly in the urban center. Compared with other functions, the distribution of sports and leisure is more uniform, and the high-density areas are more concentrated. However, nuclear density analysis reveals several agglomeration areas, indicating that sports and leisure facilities are relatively dense in these areas, which is related to the improvement of residents’ living standards and the popularity of healthy lifestyles. The areas with high shopping density are concentrated in a large area adjacent to residential areas and tourist attractions, reflecting the spatial layout of Macao in meeting the daily living and shopping needs of tourists. The distribution of food and beverages presents a distinct central feature, especially in the food street areas that have been created, which have become food centers attracting tourists and residents. Public facilities are more evenly distributed, but several higher-density areas exist near transport hubs and business districts, indicating the importance of these areas for urban service provision. Figure 4 depicts the distribution of the kernel density for each functional space.

Figure 4.

Analysis of nuclear density in each functional space.

In summary, the spatial distribution of recreation in Macao shows a trend that combines concentration and dispersion. These areas with high nuclear density of tourist attractions, accommodation services and shopping functional areas are concentrated in urban centers and tourist hotspots. Although catering services are centrally agglomerated in some specific areas, they are relatively scattered overall. The high-density concentration of public facilities shows the imbalance of Macao’s urban planning in meeting the public service needs of residents.

Analysis of the Influencing Factors of Recreational Satisfaction

Open Encoding

Open coding is a process of collecting and sorting travel notes. By discovering relevant concepts and categories and naming them, the content of travel notes can be marked concisely. Therefore, the paper extracts the recreational satisfaction experience content contained in the travel notes, decompose it into separate sentences and extract the coding elements to form a preliminary concept. On this basis, the 12 categories of the research topic are repeatedly coded, corrected and optimized: comfort, joy, fun, ecology, entertainment, exotic, culture, esthetic, mystery, accessibility, volume and life. Table 3 shows an example of open encoding.

Table 3.

Example of Open Encoding.

Data text	Conceptualization	Categorization
After eating to the nearby Portuguese rhyme around, digestion, walk pat	Leisurely relax	Comfortableness
But in fact, as long as the quietly appreciate the beauty of the harmonious coexistence, in this moment to get the best interpretation.	Comfortable and comfortable
Shopping tired, you can also find a banyan tree shelter outside the bench to sit down, enjoy a moment of leisure	Clean and leisurely
LongHuan, one of the recommended scenic spots in Macao, is really too comfortable.	Comfortable
The plants and plants in the surrounding parks are not only for Macao residents to hold weddings, but also a good place for free tourists.	Natural relaxation
Walking in the streets, eyes full of yellow, blue, green, pink, orange people dazzling, as if the mood is bright and comfortable.	In good spirit	Pleasantness
Today’s official street is still lively, at the same time “happy Mid-Autumn Festival” big non show at the moment particularly bright and the scene.	Boisterous	Pleasantness
It is also wonderful to have such a huge contrast between two very different worlds.	It is beyond logic and above reason	Fun
A wide road, the other side of the road is the Milky Way vast buildings, this side of the road is the simple official street archway.	Great phase Jing court
Love it under the night of the time overflow color, also love its small city of simple quiet.….. A hundred times, and one hundred times there will still be a surprise.	Variable
Every road that wants to stop and take pictures, like skittles, jumping around the corner from time to time.	Rich and colorful

Spindle Encoding

Spindle coding is the reclassification and comparison of the initial categories, refining and integrating the main categories that can reflect the research topic. Through continuous analysis and comparison, according to the spatial perception indicators and class set, the 12 initial categories are refined into three main categories, comprising three dimensions: physical environment elements, environmental perception elements and cultural esthetic elements (Table 4).

Table 4.

Main Categories Formed by Spindle Coding.

Fundamental category	Corresponding category	Contains concepts
Physical environment	Ecological	Pleasant scenery, natural classical, green ecology, beautiful environment
	Exotic	Fairy tale world, Portuguese style, exotic, unique flavor, different beauty
	Volumetric	Narrow, queuing, crowded, waiting, pocket, long line
	accessibility	Close up, walk, and talk
Environmental perception	Comfortableness	Leisurely and comfortable, comfortable and comfortable, quiet and leisurely, comfortable and comfortable, natural relaxation
	Pleasantness	The mood is very happy and very lively
	Fun	Incredible, colorful, colorful world, rich and colorful
	Life	Life atmosphere, market life
	Entertainment	Buy buy buy, eat eat, food card, eat and drink
	Mystery	A look, hidden, see everything in a glance
Cultural esthetic	Cultural	History museum, literature and art and history in one
Cultural esthetic	Esthetic	Good-looking, colorful, especially good-looking, sacred, solemn, delicate, literary atmosphere

Selective Encoding

Selective coding summarizes the analysis results of open-ended coding and spindle coding into a complete theoretical framework by constructing a “storyline” that dominates all categories. Through the three main categories, 12 initial categories, and repeated comparative analysis, combined with the main category and the relationship between the satisfaction of recreation, it was found that “recreational satisfaction,” is defined as the core category. Physical environment elements, environmental perception and cultural esthetic elements are involved in the process of forming recreational satisfaction, and there is a close systemic structural logic relationship between them. To ensure the credibility of the study results, a theoretical saturation test must be carried out. The remaining 9 travel notes are organized based on the 18 travel notes. The travel notes also use the above three-level coding steps, and the analysis results do not produce new concepts and categories; thus, the theory has reached saturation. Figure 5 shows the typical relationship structure of the main category.

Figure 5.

Typical relational structure of the main category.

Study of Hypothesis Model Construction

Based on ecological perception theory, this study proposes three key dimensions—physical environment elements, environmental perception elements, and cultural esthetic elements—that interact to shape recreational satisfaction. Physical environment elements, such as spatial layout, greenery, and accessibility, serve as the foundational structure that directly influences users’ sensory experiences and perceptions. Environmental perception functions as a mediating mechanism, bridging the physical environment and users’ subjective experiences of comfort, safety, and engagement. Meanwhile, cultural esthetic elements add depth and emotional resonance to these experiences, enriching them with symbolic and visual meanings. These dimensions are grounded in the theory’s emphasis on the interplay between the physical environment and human perception, which together influence the overall experience and satisfaction of users in recreational spaces. Building on these theoretical insights, this study proposes the following hypotheses to explore the interrelationships among these dimensions within the framework of ecological perception theory (Figure 6).

Hypothesis 1: Physical environment elements have a significant positive impact on recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: Physical environment elements have a significant positive influence on cultural esthetic elements;

Hypothesis 3: Physical environmental elements have a significant positive impact on environmental perception elements.

Hypothesis 4: Environmental perception elements have a significant positive impact on recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 5: Environmental perception elements have a significant positive impact on cultural esthetic elements;

Hypothesis 6: Cultural esthetic elements have a significant positive impact on recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 7: Environmental perception elements mediate the relationship between physical environmental elements and recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 8: Environmental perception elements play a mediating role in the relationship between the physical environment and cultural esthetic elements.

Hypothesis 9: Cultural esthetic elements play a mediating role in the relationship between environmental perception and recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 10: Cultural esthetic elements play a mediating role in the relationship between physical environment elements and recreational satisfaction.

Hypothesis 11: Environmental perception elements and cultural esthetic elements play a mediating role in the relationship between physical environmental elements and recreational satisfaction.

Figure 6.

The hypothetical model used in the 66 studies.

Empirical Analyses of the Recreational Satisfaction Model

Descriptive Statistical Analysis

Among the respondents included in this survey, 115 were male, accounting for 42.3% of the total; 157 were female, accounting for 57.7% of the total. In terms of the age group, there were 132 people, accounting for 48.5% of the total. In terms of education, 93 students had a graduate degree or above, accounting for 34.2% of the total. In terms of income, 113 had an income of 5,000 to 10,000, accounting for 41.5% of the total. In terms of occupation, there were 108 students, accounting for 39.7% of the total; 113 had made 2 to 5 visits to Macao, accounting for 41.5% of the total; and 72 people came to Macao with their families, accounting for 26.5% of the total (Table 5).

Table 5.

Basic Information of the Questionnaire Sample (N = 272).

Demographic variables	Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Sex
Man	115	42.3	42.3	42.3
Woman	157	57.7	57.7	100.0
Age
Under the age of 18	41	15.1	15.1	15.1
18–35 year old	132	48.5	48.5	63.6
36–60 year old	82	30.1	30.1	93.8
Over 60 years old	17	6.3	6.3	100.0
Record of formal schooling
High school and below	55	20.2	20.2	20.2
Junior college	51	18.8	18.8	39.0
Undergraduate course	73	26.8	26.8	65.8
Graduate student or above	93	34.2	34.2	100.0
Marital status
Married	112	41.2	41.2	41.2
Unmarried	160	58.8	58.8	100.0
Income
Under 2000	23	8.5	8.5	8.5
2,000–5,000	54	19.9	19.9	28.3
5,001–10,000	113	41.5	41.5	69.9
Above 10,000’s	82	30.1	30.1	100.0
Engage in a career
Public institutions or civil servants	35	12.9	12.9	12.9
Enterprise personnel	31	11.4	11.4	24.3
Liberal professions	41	15.1	15.1	39.3
Student	108	39.7	39.7	79.0
Other	57	21.0	21.0	100.0
How many times do you come
First	86	31.6	31.6	31.6
2–5 times	113	41.5	41.5	73.2
6–10 times	36	13.2	13.2	86.4
More than 11 times	37	13.6	13.6	100.0
With whom
One	68	25.0	25.0	25.0
Family	72	26.5	26.5	51.5
Sweethearts	44	16.2	16.2	67.6
Friend	55	20.2	20.2	87.9
Other	33	12.1	12.1	100.0
Total	272	100.0	100.0

Descriptive statistics of the study variables are shown in Table 6. The structural equation model is constructed through the influence factors obtained from grounded theory, and the three dimensions of physical environment, environmental perception and cultural esthetics are taken as the external potential variables; their corresponding factors are taken as the observation variables, satisfaction is taken as the endogenous variable, and the three indicators are taken as the observation variables.

Table 6.

Descriptive Statistics.

Question item	Variables	N	Min/Max	Mean	S.D.	Skewness	Kurtosis
	Physical environment
A1	Ecology	272	1/5	3.49	1.263	−0.518	−0.785
A2	Transgenicity	272	1/5	3.32	1.235	−0.581	−0.682
A3	Volume sex	272	1/5	3.43	1.246	−0.433	−0.725
A4	accessibility	272	1/5	3.36	1.296	−0.302	−0.964
	Environmental perception
B1	Amenity	272	1/5	3.37	1.385	−0.420	−1.071
B2	Pleasant sex	272	1/5	3.20	1.413	−0.222	−1.269
B3	Interesting	272	1/5	3.21	1.457	−0.210	−1.335
B4	Life sex	272	1/5	3.26	1.415	−0.179	−1.304
B5	entertainment	272	1/5	3.11	1.358	−0.106	−1.176
	Cultural esthetic
C1	Cultural sex	272	1/5	3.31	1.337	−0.307	−1.089
C2	Esthetic	272	1/5	3.42	1.391	−0.416	−1.134
	Recreation satisfaction
D1	global assessment	272	1/5	3.58	1.224	−0.599	−0.672
D2	Facilities and equipment satisfaction	272	1/5	3.56	1.281	−0.601	−0.709
D3	Landscape design satisfaction rate	272	1/5	3.49	1.239	−0.506	−0.716

Results of Structural Equation Model Tests

Reliability and Validity Analysis

In this study, based on the valid questionnaire data, the KMO test and Bartlett’s test of sphericity are performed for each variable using SPSS 25.0, and the results showed high internal consistency. The KMO value of the three influencing factors is 0.884, the KMO value of recreational satisfaction is 0.744 (reference value > 0.7), and the Bartlett spherical test sig value is .000 (Sig. < 0.05), indicating that the variables are suitable for factor analysis. The Cronbach’s α coefficients are greater than the acceptance criterion of 0.7 for physical environment elements (α = .901), environmental perception elements (α = .941), cultural esthetic elements (α = .891), and satisfaction (α = .904), indicating the variables have good internal consistency reliability. The CR value of the combined reliability coefficient of each dimension is greater than 0.7, indicating the observed variables of each latent variable have internal consistency. The average variance extraction (AVE) amount of each dimension is greater than 0.5, indicating that each dimension of the measurement model has good convergent validity (Table 7). Moreover, the AVE open root value of each latent variable is greater than the correlation coefficient between the latent variable and other latent variables, indicating there is differential validity between the dimensions of the measurement model.

Table 7.

Test of Scale Reliability and Validity.

Factor	Items	β	Cronbach α	CR	AVE
Physical environment elements	A1	.781	.901	0.892	0.675
	A2	.759
	A3	0.846
	A4	0.892
Environmental perception elements	B1	.82	.941	0.941	0.763
	B2	.882
	B3	.897
	B4	.875
	B5	.891
Cultural esthetic elements	C1	.912	.891	0.892	0.805
Cultural esthetic elements	C2	.882	.891	0.892	0.805
Recreation satisfaction	D1	.852	.904	0.906	0.762
	D2	.927
	D3	.837

Model Testing

The maximum likelihood method is used by the study to estimate the parameters and fit the research hypothesis model to obtain the standardized path coefficient map (Figure 7). According to the standardized path coefficient diagram, there are significant positive correlations between “physical environment element,”“environmental perception element” and “cultural esthetic element” and satisfaction, which is consistent with the research hypotheses. The overall fit of the model is analyzed, including the ratio of CMIN/DF, moderate index (GFI), adjusted moderation (AGFI), mean approximate error (RMSEA), non-benchmark index (NNFI), gradient index (IFI), and moderate index (CFI). As shown in Table 8, CMIN/DF < 3, RMSEA < 0.08, NFI > 0.9, NNFI > 0.9, AGFI > 0.85, and CFI > 0.9, which indicate a high overall fit of the model (Wen et al., 2004). According to the comparison of the fitting index and the critical index of fit, the model’s goodness-of-fit index does not reach the optimal level; thus, the model must be corrected.

Figure 7.

Normalized parameter pathway estimation.

Table 8.

Model Fit Degree.

Fitting the index	CMIN/DF	GFI	AGFI	RMSEA	IFI	NFI	TLI (NNFI)	CFI
Reference value	<3	>0.9	>0.9	<0.08	>0.9	>0.9	>0.9	>0.9
Inspection value	2.464	0.936	0.897	0.074	0.975	0.958	0.966	0.974

Model Correction

During the model revision process, adjustments were primarily guided by the modification indices (MI) and t-values, following the procedures established by Chou and Bentler (2002). Model refinement typically involves adding or removing parameter paths or correlating error terms to improve overall model fit. In this study, given the theoretical soundness of the constructs and the absence of a need to introduce or eliminate latent variables, the focus was placed on correlating error terms with high MI values to enhance model performance while preserving the original structural framework.

Examination of the MI output revealed that the residuals for observed variables e1 and e2 exhibited an MI value exceeding the conventional threshold of 10, indicating a significant localized misfit and a violation of the assumption of uncorrelated measurement errors. Based on this empirical evidence and theoretical justification, a covariance path between the residuals of e1 and e2 was introduced. This adjustment substantially improved the model’s fit indices without compromising theoretical integrity.Thus, the decision to incorporate correlations during model revision was informed by a combination of empirical MI criteria, theoretical coherence, and the objective of achieving a better-fitting and theoretically robust model (Figure 8).

Figure 8.

Corrected normalized parameter path estimation.

As shown in Table 9, CMIN/DF is 1.946, less than 3; GFI, AGFI, NFI, TLI, IFI and CFI all reach the standard above 0.9; and RMSEA is 0.059, less than 0.08. All the fitting indicators met the criteria of the general SEM study; thus, the revised model is considered to have good and moderate allocation. The results of the pathway analysis (Table 10) showed that Hypotheses 1 to 6 are confirmed.

Table 9.

Corrected Model Fit.

Fitting the index	CMIN/DF	GFI	AGFI	RMSEA	IFI	NFI	TLI (NNFI)	CFI
reference value	<3	>0.9	>0.9	<0.08	>0.9	>0.9	>0.9	>0.9
Inspection value	1.946	0.935	0.902	0.059	0.979	0.957	0.972	0.979

Table 10.

Structural Equation Model Path Coefficients.

Path relationship			Standardized estimates	Unstandardized estimates	S.E.	T	p	Suppose support is established
Recreation satisfaction	<—	Physical environment elements	0.327	0.353	0.068	5.169	***	Support
Cultural esthetic elements	<—	Physical environment elements	0.378	0.469	0.08	5.882	***	Support
Environmental perception elements	<—	Physical environment elements	0.427	0.492	0.077	6.42	***	Support
Recreation satisfaction	<—	Environmental perception elements	0.341	0.32	0.058	5.539	***	Support
Cultural esthetic elements	<—	Environmental perception elements	0.4	0.431	0.067	6.414	***	Support
Recreation satisfaction	<—	Cultural esthetic elements	0.254	0.221	0.059	3.717	***	Support

***

p < .001.

Mediation Effect Test

In this study, bootstrapping is used to examine the mediating role of environmental perception and cultural esthetic elements between the physical environment and recreational satisfaction. According to the suggestion of Wen and Ye (2014), the number of bootstrap samples is set to 2000, and the mediation effect test is performed. The study analysis shows (Table 11) that at the 95% confidence level, the bootstrap method confidence intervals do not contain 0; thus, the indirect effects corresponding to Hypotheses 7 to 11 exist, and all mediation hypotheses are confirmed.

Table 11.

Mediation Validation.

Way		Bias-Corrected		Percentile
	Indigo effect	95% CI		95% CI
	Evaluation	Lower	Upper	Lower	Upper
1 Physical environment elements Environmental perception elements cultural esthetic elements	0.171	0.106	0.257	0.103	0.252
2 Physical environment knowledge factor environmental perception factor satisfaction	0.146	0.087	0.225	0.084	0.222
3. Environmental perception elements: the satisfaction of cultural and esthetic elements	0.102	0.044	0.18	0.04	0.175
4 Physical environment elements cultural esthetic elements satisfaction	0.096	0.047	0.17	0.041	0.159
5 Physical environment elements environmental perception elements cultural esthetic elements satisfaction	0.043	0.019	0.087	0.016	0.081

Discussion

Discussion Results

The aim of this study is to analyze geospatial data and tourist recreation satisfaction based on the guiding principle of determining the need for the sustainable design of urban recreation spaces. The study reveals that the three dimensions of physical environment, environmental perception, and cultural esthetic elements all are with significant positive effects on recreation satisfaction (satisfaction with physical environment elements, β = .327, p < .001; satisfaction with environmental perception, β = .341, p < .001; satisfaction with cultural esthetic elements, β = .254, p < .001). These findings reinforce the utility of the theoretical framework, which not only discloses the complexity of the influence mechanisms of recreational space design but also provides new models that integrate ecological, perceptual, and cultural esthetic perspectives for interdisciplinary research.

In particular, the discovery of the mediating effect reveals the chain mediating effect of the physical environment and environmental perception and cultural esthetics, indicating that the physical environment affects recreational satisfaction through such chain response; this is confirmed by the data analysis, which shows that the environmental perception and cultural esthetic elements plays a significant intermediary role between the physical environment and satisfaction (satisfaction with environmental perception, indirect effect = 0.146, Percentile method confidence interval [0.087, 0.225]). This finding is supported by the study of Chiang (2023), who found that multisensory stimulation in natural landscapes significantly improved visitors’ sense of recovery and satisfaction, demonstrating the mediating role of environmental perception in recreational satisfaction. In addition, a study by Genc and Gulertekin Genc (2023) shown that esthetic experience plays a regulatory role in the relationship between the authenticity perception of cultural sites and overall satisfaction, demonstrating the importance of the esthetic experience in satisfaction.

The involvement of ecological perception theory in the sustainability of recreation space design provides a new perspective on the understanding and design of urban recreation spaces, focuses on the quality of the space environmental perception, and contributes to various designs, planning practices, and interdisciplinary research environments from the perspective of evidence-based green space esthetics (Stoltz & Grahn, 2021). Ecological perception theory emphasizes the concept of “affordances”—the opportunities for action that the environment provides and how individuals perceive them (Gibson, 1979). In the context of sustainable recreation area design, this theory provides valuable insights into creating spaces that align with users’ natural behaviors and promote harmonious interaction with the environment. Thus, the findings of this theoretical framework not only provide support for the application of ecological perception theory to urban recreation space design, but also provide a new model for interdisciplinary research that combines ecological, perceptual, and cultural esthetic perspectives.

These findings are consistent with previous research emphasizing the importance of multi-sensory and cultural experiences in enhancing recreational satisfaction. For example, studies in high-density urban areas such as Hong Kong and Singapore have similarly highlighted the role of environmental perception and cultural esthetics in improving urban residents’ well-being and recreational satisfaction (Saw et al., 2015; Xue & Manuel, 2001). However, compared to these regions, Macao’s unique status as a World Heritage city and its spatial constraints make it a particularly challenging case for balancing cultural preservation and recreational needs. Unlike the linear park systems in Singapore, which emphasize ecological connectivity, Macao requires a more integrated design approach that combines limited green spaces with rich cultural narratives. Similarly, European World Heritage cities such as Lisbon and Prague have demonstrated the importance of incorporating local esthetic elements into public spaces to enhance user engagement (Jiang et al., 2025), which aligns with this study’s findings on the mediating role of cultural esthetics. These comparisons underline the significance of adapting recreational space design practices to specific urban contexts, particularly in culturally significant and spatially constrained environments.

Guidelines for Sustainable Design of Recreation Space in Macao

Optimization of the Physical Environment

Based on the finding that quality of the physical environment is a key factor affecting recreation satisfaction, a comprehensive assessment of Macao’s recreational space is recommended to identify key physical elements that need to be improved, such as the level of greenery, facility integrity and space accessibility (Liu et al., 2017; Tsurumi & Managi, 2015; H. Wang et al., 2022). For these identified problems, visitor comfort and satisfaction can be improved by adding green spaces and recreation areas and improving the transportation system. In addition, the application of GIS technology to systematically analyze how visitors use recreation spaces in Macao is helpful for optimizing path planning and spatial layout, while resources can be well allocated by analyzing the flow density of people and activity hotspots. To guarantee the long-term effects of these improvements, the enhancement of ongoing maintenance and management are also needed to ensure that the recreational space remains constantly attractive and functional. Moreover, integrating GIS-based dynamic monitoring into routine urban management systems can provide continuous feedback for space optimization, enabling adaptive interventions based on real-time user behavior patterns.

The Improvement of Environmental Perception

Evidently, enhancing environmental perception is achieved by improving the interactive experience between tourists and the recreation space, including sensory participation, accessibility, and inclusiveness. First, sensory engagement promotes deeper interactions by increasing the diversity of natural elements and optimizing landscape design. Studies have shown that sensory-rich environments significantly increase visitor satisfaction and engagement (Y. Feng et al., 2022). Furthermore, based on ecological perception theory, designers should consider how visitors perceive the “affordances” of recreational spaces through multi-sensory experiences. Second, improving accessibility is the basis for ensuring that all visitors can easily enter and move in recreation spaces, including easy navigation paths, clear signs and barrier-free rest areas. H. Wang et al. (2022) showed that good accessibility increases visitors’ perceptions of safety and comfort and encourages them to explore and interact with the environment. Finally, an inclusive design ensures that recreation spaces meet the needs of people in different ages and activities. By providing a variety of recreational options, each visitor could find a way to interact with the space according to their interests, which is critical to improving visitor satisfaction and facilitating repeat visits (Lim et al., 2016). In practice, this requires not only design improvements but also active management strategies, such as periodic user satisfaction surveys and inclusive community engagement during recreation space planning and redesign processes.

Integration of Cultural Esthetics

Integrating cultural esthetics is the key strategy for enhancing the cultural depth of recreation spaces. According to the study of Dymchenko (2023), space design should take into account the historical and cultural characteristics of the region. For example, designers can use the historical and cultural symbols of Macao, such as the Portuguese stone road and its unique architectural style, to integrate these elements into the design of recreation spaces, deepening the resonance of tourists with Macao’s cultural background and stories. In addition, telling local stories through clever spatial layouts and design elements can effectively enhance the emotional connection between tourists and the recreation space. At the same time, integrating diversified visual art forms into design, according to Salwa (2019), can meet the esthetic needs of different tourists. In addition, incorporating local artists and cultural practitioners into the design process can ensure authenticity and enhance emotional resonance, especially in culturally sensitive contexts like World Heritage cities.

In summary, implementing these design strategies must consider the cost-benefit ratio, pressure on the natural environment, cultural sensitivity and humanistic demands to ensure that the implementation of each strategy not only meets current demand but also is sustainable in the long term, and provides Macao residents and visiting tourists a richer and more satisfactory recreational experience.

Research Contributions

Theoretical Implications

This study advances the application of ecological perception theory by extending it into high-density, heritage-rich urban environments, where spatial, ecological, and cultural pressures converge. By systematically integrating physical environment attributes, environmental perception, and cultural esthetic dimensions within a unified analytical framework, the research deepens the understanding of the multi-layered mechanisms shaping recreational satisfaction. Furthermore, it underscores the necessity of interdisciplinary approaches that bridge urban design, environmental psychology, and cultural sustainability, offering a new theoretical lens for designing sustainable urban recreation spaces.

Practical Implications

The findings offer actionable insights for urban planners, landscape architects, and policymakers aiming to develop sustainable recreational spaces in compact urban settings. The proposed strategies not only prioritize ecological functionality and cultural preservation but also emphasize enhancing user-centered experiential quality. This integrated framework can inform future policy initiatives aimed at strengthening green infrastructure, promoting social inclusiveness, and fostering cultural vitality in both emerging and established high-density cities worldwide. By aligning recreational space design with broader sustainability goals, this study contributes to the transition toward more livable, resilient, and culturally enriched urban environments.

Conclusion

Research Conclusion

As an important part of a city, the rational planning and design of recreation spaces are the key to improving the quality of urban life and realizing sustainable urban development. This study verifies the application value of ecological perception theory in the design of urban recreation spaces. The results emphasize the significant influence of the three dimensions of the physical environment, environmental perception and cultural esthetics on recreation satisfaction, especially the physical environment elements, which significantly improve tourists’ satisfaction through the intermediary role of environmental perception and cultural esthetic elements. In addition, by using GIS technology to optimize the design and management of recreational spaces, the sensory experience and cultural interaction of tourists can be enhanced, which helps enhance overall satisfaction and ongoing attraction. This study provides not only practical design guidance for the continuous improvement of recreational spaces in Macao but also a new model combining ecological, perceptual and cultural esthetic perspectives for the research and planning of recreational spaces in other cities. This comprehensive study provides a valuable theoretical and practical basis for the design of sustainable urban recreational spaces.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

In the preceding sections, this study examined the sustainability design of recreation spaces, presented relevant viewpoints, and proposed feasible strategies. Nevertheless, several limitations should be acknowledged, which also suggest avenues for future research.

First, the sampling frame was concentrated in a specific geographic area (Macao) and among a relatively homogeneous user group. This narrow scope may limit the external validity of the findings, as recreational needs, perceptions, and behaviors could vary substantially in different cultural, climatic, and socioeconomic contexts. Moreover, the recruitment approach may have introduced selection bias, as individuals more engaged with recreational spaces or with higher interest in cultural heritage may have been overrepresented. Future studies should adopt stratified or randomized sampling strategies to improve representativeness and mitigate potential bias.

Second, while the sample size met the minimum requirements for the applied statistical models, the robustness of certain inferences remains sensitive to sample distribution, missing values, and potential non-response effects. These factors could affect the stability of model estimates and the reliability of thematic patterns extracted from qualitative data. Triangulation with alternative datasets—such as municipal records, systematic field observations, or larger-scale surveys—would enhance the stability and credibility of results.

Third, the cross-sectional nature of the data captures perceptions and satisfaction at a single time point, without accounting for temporal variation. User experiences may evolve in response to seasonal changes, policy interventions, spatial redesigns, or socio-cultural shifts. Longitudinal designs would allow for tracking such changes, thereby providing a more dynamic understanding of how sustainable design strategies influence recreation space use and perception over time.

Finally, although combining GIS spatial analysis, grounded theory coding, and structural equation modeling (SEM) provided methodological breadth, each approach has inherent limitations. GIS-based analysis depends heavily on the completeness and positional accuracy of POI datasets, where even minor classification or geocoding errors may skew spatial interpretation. Grounded theory coding, while effective for inductive insights, is susceptible to coder subjectivity despite the use of coding protocols. SEM assumes linearity among latent variables and requires sufficient sample size and distributional adequacy for model stability. Employing alternative or complementary analytical frameworks—such as nonlinear modeling, agent-based simulation, or machine learning—may better capture the complexity of human–environment interactions in recreation spaces.

Addressing these limitations in future research would not only strengthen the robustness and generalizability of findings but also deepen the theoretical and practical understanding of sustainable recreation space design in diverse urban contexts.

Footnotes

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed to this research. Additionally,we also acknowledge the financial support provided by Funded by the Science and Technology Development Fund of the Macao Special Administrative Region (Project No.: 0036/2022/A),which made this study possible.

Author Note

The first author recently joined a new institution. Therefore,the author’s affiliation is listed as both the original institution and the new institution (School of Art and Design,Jiangsu Ocean University) to accurately reflect the author’s current academic positions.

ORCID iDs

YaFeng Lai

Kuo-Hsun Wen

Ethical Considerations

This study did not require ethical approval as it did not involve any procedures or interventions with human participants,animals,or other entities that necessitate such approval. The research was conducted in full compliance with institutional and national guidelines regarding non-human subject research.

Consent to Participate

All participants provided informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. The study protocol and survey procedures were reviewed and approved by the Academic Committee of the Faculty of Innovation and Design,City University of Macau (approval number: RE-2024-12-12). Participation was voluntary,and respondents could withdraw at any stage without any consequences.

Consent for Publication

This study does not contain any individual person's data in any form (including images,videos,or identifiable personal details). Therefore,consent for publication is not applicable.

Author Contributions

Pohsun Wang: Conceptualization,Methodology,Writing - Reviewing. YaFeng Lai: Software,Data curation,Writing- Original draft preparation,Visualization,Investigation,Validation. ShunHe Chen: Supervision. Kuo-Hsun Wen: Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article: This research was supported by Funded by the Science and Technology Development Fund of the Macao Special Administrative Region (Project No.: 0036/2022/A).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data and materials used in this study are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.

Code Availability

The code used in this study is available upon request from the corresponding author.

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