Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Adolescence affects emotional, social, and cognitive development. The period between infancy and adulthood is marked by rapid psychological and physiological changes that significantly impact future well-being and community contributions (Lomax et al., 2024). Adolescent education, mental health, and development are essential to shaping a nation’s social and economic environment (Collins et al., 2024). Ensure academic success and mental health to foster personal growth and a strong, capable, and productive generation (Hongell-Ekholm et al., 2024). Research on adolescents’ well-being is crucial given the rising prevalence of mental health concerns and academic stress, especially in competitive educational systems like China’s.
Academic self-efficacy affects students’ academic and professional achievement. Academically self-confident students are successful problem-solvers and tenacious individuals (Sun & Liu, 2023). Identifying academic self-efficacy factors is crucial for helping Chinese children achieve academic success, as education is highly valued and competition is intense. Family support affects students’ academic self-efficacy. Emotionally supportive and active parents who foster a growth mindset and a sense of belonging at school may enhance their children’s academic self-efficacy (Xie, 2024). Juniors with family support are more likely to have access to academic resources, such as tutors and extracurricular activities. Family support provides students with direction and purpose, which are crucial to academic success (Abdullah et al., 2023). Future empowerment refers to the intellectual, social, and psychological skills they need to succeed. This initiative promotes academic success and emotional resilience via family participation, community resources, and teacher support (Fu & Zhang, 2024). Self-efficacy and self-esteem significantly impact adolescents’ ability to overcome challenges, make informed decisions, and achieve academically and emotionally (Shengyao et al., 2024). Beyond academic accomplishment, they are empowered. It equips pupils to thrive in society, find employment, and contribute. Community resources may also affect learners’ academic self-efficacy. Libraries, tutoring, and extracurricular activities may boost students’ academic self-efficacy. Students may gain direction and purpose by exploring career options via community resources. Students’ academic achievement relies on their capacity to feel part of something broader, and community resources may play a role in this (Barker et al., 2023).
Academic self-efficacy refers to the belief that students can learn and succeed on assignments, which in turn affects their motivation, study habits, and grades, regardless of the environment (Bandura, 1986). Global research indicates that socioeconomic status, social connections, teacher support, and family engagement all impact self-efficacy (Wang et al., 2024; X. Zhang & Qian, 2024). Adolescence is crucial because individuals are most exposed to others’ criticism and are forming their sense of self. As academic expectations and cultural pressures in many school systems increase, the psychological burdens on children become more significant. Therefore, understanding and supporting their self-beliefs is more vital than ever. Academic competitiveness, strong family expectations, and rapid societal change exacerbate this issue in China. Chinese adolescents often face challenging academic pathways due to national examination pressures, educational access inequalities between urban and rural regions, and shifting parent-child relationships resulting from migration and modernisation (Deng & Gao, 2024). Even though policy discourse is increasingly focused on adolescents’ mental health and educational achievement, integrative empirical research linking adolescents’ contextual support systems (family, school, and community) to their psychological resources (personality traits, self-esteem, etc.) is lacking. This research addresses that requirement by conducting a rigorous, theory-based study of Chinese teens’ academic self-efficacy in the context of international frameworks and China’s evolving educational environment.
Adolescents’ academic habits, self-perceptions, and coping methods shape their future success and happiness (Majauskiene et al., 2024). Support from loved ones, instructors, and community groups boosts mental and emotional resilience. Due to increasing academic pressures and mental health difficulties, adolescents are more sensitive to stress and self-doubt, especially in competitive educational contexts like China (He et al., 2024). Mental health and academic self-efficacy have a significant impact on both short-term academic achievement and long-term career prospects, as well as social development and overall life satisfaction; therefore, they must be addressed. This study helps adolescents improve their academic and psychological performance by recognising their specific challenges and support networks, thereby building a more substantial and capable generation.
Families and parents have a significant impact on adolescents’ mental health and academic achievement (L. Zhang, 2024). Academic self-efficacy requires emotional stability, motivation, and self-confidence, which are best fostered in a loving environment (Green & Rizwan, 2024). Parental involvement, encouragement, and goal-setting have a significant impact on students’ study habits. Strong parent-adolescent ties help to cope with hardship, build resilience, and feel confident. When their family supports them, adolescents are less likely to experience anxiety and academic fatigue, and it encourages them to seek assistance, solve problems, and maintain their mental health (Albala & Shapira, 2024). Parents and relatives provide emotional and educational support to help individuals develop into well-rounded, successful individuals.
Family support encompasses emotional, instrumental, and informational aspects, which help adolescents develop academic self-efficacy, thereby enhancing their confidence and determination to succeed in school. Adolescents who feel supported by their families are more likely to work hard, persist in their studies, and enjoy them. The quality of the parent-child relationship affects students’ academic self-efficacy (Abaszadeh et al., 2024). Engaged, supportive, and responsive parents can help their children feel more confident in their academic abilities by being emotionally present, providing a sense of community, and fostering a growth mindset. A strong parent-child relationship can provide youngsters with direction and purpose, which is crucial for academic success (N. Chen et al., 2023). Tutoring and extracurricular activities made possible by solid parent-child connections may boost students’ academic self-efficacy. Effective teacher support has a significant impact on students’ academic self-efficacy. Teachers who are encouraging and helpful, and offer constructive feedback, may enhance students’ academic self-efficacy by providing emotional support, a sense of belonging, and fostering a growth mindset (Mudhar et al., 2024). Teacher assistance in accessing tutoring and extracurricular activities might boost students’ academic self-efficacy. Teachers can help kids develop direction and purpose for academic success.
Introversion and extroversion affect a person’s scholastic confidence. Personality traits that encourage challenge and perseverance may boost academic self-efficacy (Shengyao et al. 2024). Personality type may impact academic self-efficacy and how an individual responds to parental and teacher guidance, criticism, and recognition. Self-esteem is an individual’s assessment of their worth and ability, which also affects academic self-efficacy. Self-esteem increases academic self-efficacy because people believe in their abilities. Self-esteem may also influence adolescents’ academic self-efficacy and their response to parental and teacher guidance, criticism, and praise (Aghatabay et al., 2023). Table 1 shows the impact of community resources on adolescents’ cognitive well-being in learning abilities.
Community Resources and Cognitive Well-Being.
The initiative addresses several critical research questions, including family support, community resources, adolescent academic self-efficacy, and mental health. This research examines the relationship between family support and academic self-efficacy, specifically how it impacts adolescents’ learning abilities. This examines the relative value of emotional, instrumental, and informational family support to determine which family dynamics affect adolescents’ academic self-esteem. This research helps to understand how family support influences academic achievement and promotes the development of more specific intervention methods to increase family resources to support adolescents’ growth. The second inquiry study focuses on the practical implications of community resources in enhancing adolescents’ cognitive health. By examining the impact of educational courses, recreational facilities, and counselling services on teens’ resilience, coping skills, and emotional regulation, the study aims to highlight the role of community engagement in enhancing their mental health. Our findings advocate for the investment in accessible and diverse community services. This strategy can significantly promote adolescents’ holistic well-being in the face of modern societal challenges. This insight is particularly relevant for educators, legislators, and community stakeholders. Ultimately, the study investigates how personality influences the relationships between adolescent academic self-efficacy, mental health, family support, and community resources. Adolescents exhibit diverse personalities and ways of being, and this research aims to explore how external factors influence their development. This examines how openness to new experiences, conscientiousness, and resilience in moderate family and community influences adolescent development. Promoting teenage well-being in China necessitates a multifaceted and comprehensive approach. The following are the study’s objectives:
To examine the influence of family involvement, teacher support, community support, parent–child relationship, and personality on the academic self-efficacy and mental health of Chinese adolescents.
To examine the moderating effect of personality on the relationship between support systems and adolescents’ academic self-efficacy.
To test the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between contextual support variables and academic self-efficacy among Chinese adolescents.
Due to rising academic pressures on Chinese adolescents, understanding what affects their academic self-efficacy and mental health is crucial. There is a lack of integrated studies on the relationships between family, community, and personality, and their effects. Previous studies have examined these components separately (X. Liu et al., 2024; Tang & Zhu, 2024). This study examines the complex relationship between family involvement, teacher support, community resources, and personality factors on adolescent academic success, encompassing self-esteem and personality development. Teachers, policymakers, and parents can utilise the data to improve programmes that help adolescents overcome emotional and mental health issues and succeed in school. Identifying the mediating and moderating factors that enhance adolescent development in contemporary China is a significant contribution to the research.
Academic self-efficacy is the belief that one can plan and execute the measures needed to achieve academic goals. It is a key determinant in adolescents’ motivation, mental health, and academic achievement (Lee et al., 2024; Steare et al., 2024). As adolescents experience profound cognitive, emotional, and social development, they may be more susceptible to academic challenges and external influences than in earlier stages of life. High expectations, challenging tests, and hefty school assignments put Chinese adolescents under academic strain. In this situation, inadequate academic self-efficacy has short-term and long-term implications on academic performance, mental health, and emotional development (Jiang, 2024; M. H. Kim & Karr, 2024). Adolescents who lack confidence in their abilities are more prone to avoidance and procrastination. These behaviours can lead to feelings of inadequacy and negatively affect social and school relationships. Understanding academic self-efficacy is crucial to supporting adolescents’ academic success and well-being.
Recent empirical investigations have highlighted Chinese adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Within Social Cognitive Theory, X. Zhang and Qian (2024) examined the relationship between social support and academic success. This study included 265 Chinese middle schoolers with a mean age of 13.47. They found that social support affected students’ academic performance directly and indirectly via self-efficacy and learning engagement. Self-efficacy was the strongest mediator, demonstrating that social support improves academic performance via students’ confidence in their academic abilities. S. Chen (2024) explored the direct and indirect relationships between essential psychological needs, mindfulness, academic self-efficacy, and academic achievement in 355 Chinese college students. Fundamental psychological prerequisites directly and indirectly affected successful academic identity, with mindfulness moderating this link. However, academic self-efficacy did not moderate this relationship, suggesting that it may be more strongly connected with performance outcomes than with identity-based academic concepts. Qi (2025) quantitatively analysed 906 Chinese secondary and middle school students’ responses to COVID-19-related distance learning to measure self-perceived innovativeness. Innovative students had greater scores on academic resilience, self-confidence, and distance learning performance. Male students were more inventive. Middle schoolers scored lower than high schoolers. The findings show that flexible cognitive traits are crucial for academic achievement during interruptions. Y. Lin (2025) examined the emotional aspects of language acquisition in 537 international university students learning Chinese characters using validated measures and mediation analysis. Learning anxiety and academic burnout were positively correlated, but academic self-efficacy and anxiety were negatively correlated. The mediation research found that academic self-efficacy partially mediated the burnout-learning anxiety relationship in emotionally draining academic tasks. Grade level, parental education, and sleep quality affected anxiety, burnout, and self-efficacy. These findings demonstrate that weak academic self-efficacy is a serious risk factor for mental health and academic success.
Even if its importance is growing, Chinese academic self-efficacy research is still limited. The intricate interaction between individual and environmental factors on self-efficacy is overlooked in favour of investigating mental health or academic achievement in most current studies (Hinduja et al., 2024; Song & Hu, 2024). Self-esteem, personality traits, community resources, teacher engagement, and family support have been studied separately but seldom in a comprehensive theoretical framework or in combination (H. Li & Hao, 2025; Yotyodying et al., 2024). There is also a dearth of knowledge of how these factors affect academic self-efficacy, particularly in China. Therapies that improve students’ academic performance and mental toughness are difficult to develop due to a paucity of research. More than one-third of students in both urban and rural areas experience adolescent stress, highlighting the importance of addressing this issue in light of China’s growing focus on education (Tian et al., 2025).
Given these limitations, the current study used ecological systems theory and Bandura’s social cognitive theory to examine how individual traits and environmental supports affect Chinese adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. This study expands the understanding of teacher engagement, community resources, personality traits, self-esteem, and family support as factors affecting mental health and academic accomplishment. This research has policy and practice implications, as mental health professionals can better identify at-risk adolescents and provide tailored treatments; teachers can better personalise classroom support; and policy makers can better craft mental well-being programmes.
Literature Review
Psychosocial and Environmental Influences on Academic Self-Efficacy
Understanding familial support and its influence on adolescents’ academic self-efficacy is crucial to understanding the maturation process. In his pioneering self-efficacy theory, Bandura (1986) explains how social influence, vicarious experiences, physiological conditions, and mastery affect confidence. Parental participation, kindness, and support have a positive impact on teenagers’ academic self-efficacy at home (Grijalva-Quiñonez et al., 2020). Gambin et al. (2021) discovered that adolescents with emotionally supportive parents were more confident in their academic abilities. Research has shown that homework aids and educational resources enhance adolescents’ academic self-efficacy (Rachmawati et al., 2021). Parents’ informational support, such as advice on educational and career routes, also shapes adolescents’ academic self-perceptions (Jackson & Lambert, 2023). These findings show the complexity of parental influence on educational performance and the necessity of family support in adolescent academic self-efficacy. Family and community services affect adolescents’ cognitive health. Adolescents who engage in extracurricular activities, utilise recreational facilities, and seek counselling have reduced stress, anxiety, and sadness (Goodman et al. 2021). Adolescents gain confidence and emotional and cognitive resilience by meeting new people, learning new things, and improving themselves through the community’s educational initiatives (López-Aymes et al., 2020). Recreational facilities offer exercise and friendship-building opportunities, which are essential for adolescents’ mental health (Simpson et al., 2024). Community counselling programmes can offer a safe environment for teens to discuss their thoughts and receive support (Johnson et al., 2023). Personality type may moderate environmental effects on adolescents. Interactionists believe personality traits may affect how individuals respond to environmental stimuli. According to Mohamud and Madderla (2024), youth who score high on the extraversion scale tend to thrive in socially supportive environments, whereas those who score lower may struggle. Similarly, Mammadov and Tozoglu (2023) showed that conscientious adolescents benefited more from structured classrooms and parental interaction than their less conscientious counterparts. Based on the cited literature, the following are the study’s hypotheses.
Theoretical Perspectives Guiding Adolescent Development Research
Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bussey & Bandura, 1999) underpin this research. Theory suggests that beliefs, behaviours, and environments interact to shape growth in a complex manner. This concept suggests that self-confidence influences motivation, behaviour, and outcomes. Self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by mastery, vicarious learning, social pressure, and physiological factors (A. Arslan, 2013). Caprara et al. (1998) emphasise the role of personal attributes, community resources, and familial support in shaping adolescents’ self-image. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory can help explain the complex relationship between individuals and their environment. According to the theory, human development occurs in a nested hierarchy of interrelated systems:
the microsystem (the immediate environment of the individual)
the mesosystem (microsystem interactions)
the exosystem (external environments that indirectly impact development)
the macrosystem (cultural and societal contexts)
Within the theoretical framework, the influence of family, community, and individual attributes is paramount. These factors operate at the microsystemic level, directly impacting the individual. Conversely, the sociocultural background, a broader contextual factor, influences the exosystem and macrosystem levels, indirectly shaping the individual’s development (Garavan et al. 2023).
Despite studies showing that family support is vital, little is known about its impact on adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Many studies have overlooked the specific effects of instrumental, emotional, and informational parental support in favour of generic measures of parental engagement and support (Martínez-López et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2024). Thus, research is required to distinguish the effects of different forms of support on adolescent academic self-efficacy, thereby understanding better how family influences academic success. Although community resources have been linked to improved mental health outcomes for adolescents, there is a dearth of research on the precise mechanisms by which these resources affect cognitive health. Previous research has focused on community resources and cognitive health outcomes, rather than the processes and routes (Kates et al., 2023; Thimm-Kaiser et al., 2023). To better understand how community resources impact adolescents’ mental health and design more effective therapies, further research is needed to discover mediating pathways.
Recent studies have shown that instructors’ emotional and intellectual support is crucial to students’ performance in many educational settings. H. Liu et al. (2025) examined Chinese students’ reported teacher support, empathy, and English learning ennui, focusing on psychological aspects of teacher-student interactions. When instructors showed empathy, children were less bored and more engaged. According to Ansong et al. (2024), consistent assistance improved performance across all assessment types, particularly for disadvantaged children. The authors also examined teacher support on both low- and high-stakes tests. Jia and Cheng (2024) found that instructors’ social support improved students’ emotional experiences in class, which boosted their engagement with the topic.
This research examines the multifaceted effects of community resources and family support on adolescents’ cognitive health and academic self-efficacy to address these information gaps. The research employs a multidimensional approach to measure family support, encompassing emotional, instrumental, and informational aspects, to investigate how family influences affect teenagers’ academic self-perceptions. The study also aims to investigate how family support and community resources influence adolescent development through self-esteem and personality type. This study aims to advance knowledge of adolescent development and inform interventions to promote cognitive health and academic performance, leveraging a robust theoretical base and scientific rigour. The final hypothesis of the study is as follows:
Research Framework
Figure 1 presents the conceptual framework that links the various components of the study to the dependent variable, academic self-efficacy. This framework places adolescents’ academic self-efficacy, such as their confidence in their ability to succeed, at its core. The independent determinants in this framework, that is, family support, community resources, parent-child relationship, and teacher support, are crucial factors that influence academic self-efficacy. At the microsystemic level, family support and the quality of the parent-child relationship play a significant role in teenagers’ development. At a broader contextual level, community resources and teacher support have a significant influence. In the conceptual framework, personality type and self-esteem are both moderating and mediating factors. Personality moderates academic self-efficacy and independent factors, showing how individuals respond to their circumstances. Self-esteem is linked to independent factors and academic self-efficacy, illustrating how adolescent self-perceptions are shaped by their unique blend of personal, social, and familial experiences.
Research model.
The proposed theoretical model (Figure 1) illustrates the various connections between adolescent mental health and academic self-efficacy. According to the concept, family support boosts adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. This help is emotional, instrumental, and informational. Homes that provide loving support, continuous praise, and constructive criticism boost adolescents’ self-esteem and academic motivation. Access to schools, parks, and counselling services should improve adolescent cognitive health. Community programmes enhance adolescent resilience and mental health by providing opportunities for skill development, fostering social connections, and offering emotional support. Parent-child stable relationships and supportive teacher relationships may also boost adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Parents’ and teachers’ supportive and communicative relationships enhance adolescents’ academic confidence, motivation, and engagement. Personality type may modify the associations between independent factors and adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental well-being. Personality qualities, including openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, as well as environmental and familial influences, may influence adolescents’ development. Self-esteem may also modify the associations between independent factors and adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental well-being. Adolescents’ self-esteem, which is influenced by their perceptions of family and community support, may enhance their academic self-efficacy and mental health.
Personality is a moderating factor in the ecological systems paradigm because it shapes people’s interactions and reactions to their environment. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory posits that complex environmental interactions lead to sustained growth. Personality traits, including emotional stability, openness, and conscientiousness, help people understand the world. Outgoing or resilient adolescents may perceive and utilise family and teacher assistance better than introverted or cautious teens. Bandura’s social cognitive theory emphasises the role of self-beliefs and dispositions in shaping behaviour-environment interactions, thereby supporting this integration. With personality as a moderator, the study examines how individual dispositions might accentuate or reduce support network effects on academic self-efficacy. This approach helps explain adolescent development by acknowledging that different teenagers’ personality configurations may lead to the same external support having different psychological or academic outcomes.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory classifies environmental variables into nested systems, including microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem, to understand the complex effects on adolescent development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). This technique is used to examine how Chinese teenagers’ family, schools, and communities affect their academic self-efficacy and psychological health. Our microsystem examination of parent-child interactions, teacher support, and family engagement includes direct encounters with classmates, instructors, and relatives. Mesosystems link microsystems and illustrate the effects of family and school support on adolescent psychological development. The community resources component includes the exosystem, which encompasses community structures and local educational laws. Chinese youth face academic pressure and social expectations within the macro-system of cultural norms, societal values, and national educational objectives. The study perceives the chronosystem as the shifting backdrop of digitalisation and educational reform that increasingly affects Chinese youth, even though the study’s cross-sectional approach does not directly analyse temporal changes.
New ecological theory applications in educational psychology support this multi-level picture. H. Liu et al. (2023) utilise buoyant and online educational contexts to illustrate how ecological layers impact emotional resilience and adaptability. H. Liu et al. (2022) studied Chinese webcast teaching anxiety in an ecological context. Personal traits and organisational norms influence instructors’ real-life experiences, as demonstrated. These studies demonstrate that Bronfenbrenner’s paradigm is applicable in both traditional and modern schooling, thereby supporting the ecological framework. A multi-layered approach may represent the complex and culturally based development of adolescents’ academic self-efficacy.
Methodology
Research Participants
In this quantitative investigation, data are collected from the population through a systematic survey. This study encompasses adolescents from throughout China, reflecting the country’s cultural and socioeconomic diversity. China, a vast and diverse nation, demonstrates how family dynamics, community involvement, and individual characteristics influence the development of adolescents. The study recruits adolescents nationwide to ensure the findings are relevant to various samples. Family involvement, community resources, teacher support, personality traits, and academic self-efficacy affect adolescents’ cognitive health and academic performance. This study aimed to establish a robust framework for understanding these linkages. A comprehensive literature review revealed a lack of understanding among Chinese youths of the complex interaction between these factors, prompting the research questions. To fill that gap, this study examined the links between these characteristics and academic self-efficacy, self-esteem, and psychological wellness. The study used validated measures to assess academic self-efficacy, family engagement, teacher support, and personality traits.
Data Cleaning and Missing Data Management
The dataset was thoroughly cleansed to enhance its quality and reliability. The first phase was evaluating the replies for thoroughness and coherence. All instances with more than 10% missing data in critical variables were excluded (
The sample consisted of 750 adolescents to ensure sufficient power and accuracy for structural equation modelling (SEM). The study employed Yamane’s (1967) sample size formula, a widely used formula in education and psychology that is suitable for large populations. With a 5% margin of error and a large target population of Chinese secondary school students. The study met SEM criteria for statistical power, reliability, and generalizability, which were linked to model complexity, latent components, and observable variables.
Participants must be between 13 and 18 years old and in high school. Cognitively impaired patients or those who could not provide informed consent or legal guardian approval were excluded. Stratified random selection by province, school type (urban/rural), and educational level ensured that the sample represented China’s cultural, institutional, and geographical diversity. This approach is supported by current studies demonstrating the impact of diverse places in China on teens’ educational and psychological outcomes (X. Chen & Hesketh, 2021; Qu et al., 2024), as well as earlier research on effective practices (T. J. Chen et al., 2024; Xia, 2024). Due to stratification, the study achieved balanced representation, thereby enhancing its external validity.
The survey instrument was based on literature-validated measures to ensure content validity. Online and in-person questionnaires were used to enhance response rates and ensure diversity. Missing variables were imputed numerous times to avoid estimation bias. The Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests confirmed normality, whereas the standardised residual analysis identified outliers. Deviations from normality were handled with proper transformations. The study checked for Common Method Bias using Harman’s single-factor test. No one factor explained most of the variance. The study tested for multicollinearity using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) analysis; all values were below 5.0, which is meaningful.
Sample Size and Sampling Technique
Seven hundred fifty adolescents, representing 68% of the total, was selected using stratified random selection to reflect China’s diverse regions, provinces, and cities. The target samples are adolescents from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds who attend urban and rural schools, representing a range of ethnicities. The study employed inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure a representative and relevant sample of Chinese adolescents. Participants were 13 to 18-year-olds from around China who attended public or private schools.
Participants must be able to complete the survey alone and have parental consent. The research excluded those with significant mental diseases or cognitive disabilities since self-reported information may be inaccurate. To ensure academic continuity, the study excluded adolescents whose education had been considerably disrupted in the preceding 6 months owing to major illness or school transfers. Respondent demographics are crucial for ensuring the diversity and comprehensive analysis of this research. Adolescence is a pivotal developmental period during which one’s social, emotional, and cognitive development undergoes rapid changes. The study involved adolescents in this age range to capture their unique perspectives and experiences. Another reason gender diversity is essential is that boys and girls may have distinct ideas and behaviours. A representative sample of each gender allows the study to adjust for gender differences. The residential area is also a demographic factor due to the differences in socioeconomic and environmental conditions between rural and urban areas. The study examined the impact of external factors on academic self-efficacy and cognitive health in adolescents from diverse residential environments. Public, private, and boarding schools are also included in the adolescent’s educational background.
Due to several educational settings, the study demonstrates how different environments influence adolescents’ beliefs and behaviours. Geography is another demographic factor in China’s large and diverse environment. Since it covers adolescents from varied regions, provinces, and cities, the poll captures regional socio-cultural distinctions and experiences. The study’s primary purpose is to sample a representative subset of Chinese adolescents that accounts for these demographic parameters to improve generalizability and validity. The study’s sample is in Table 2 for ready reference.
Sample of the Study.
Data Collection and Research Instruments
This quantitative cross-sectional study investigates the impact of family participation, community resources, teacher support, personality traits, and other factors on the academic self-efficacy of Chinese adolescents. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure a representative sample of China’s teens. The sample of adolescents representing various locations and educational backgrounds, encompasses a range of socioeconomic statuses and school climates. The learners were stratified by urban, rural, public, or private school affiliation to ensure diversity. Data were collected using standardised questionnaires to ensure consistency and reliability. The study randomly selected strata-based schools from student and school rosters provided by multiple regional education organisations for the sample. Randomly selected students from various schools participated. Data were collected by having participants complete a standardised questionnaire with validated scales and research-specific questions. Before collecting data, the study obtained ethical approval and informed consent from participants and guardians. The survey assessed academic self-efficacy, personality traits, community resources, self-esteem, and family support using standardised questionnaires. The survey was supervised to ensure data accuracy and reduce response bias. After collecting the replies, the study employed mediation and moderation analyses to examine the correlations between the study variables. The questionnaire examined adolescents’ perspectives on family support, community resources, parent-child relationships, teacher support, personality traits, self-esteem, and academic self-efficacy. Table 3 lists the variables, scales, and sample questions for reference.
Variables, Scale, and Sample Items.
In particular, five items were taken from the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (ASES) (Ansong et al., 2016) to measure academic self-efficacy, five from Dunst (2022) and Rojo-Wissar et al. (2020) to measure parent-child relationships and family support, five from Metheny et al. (2008) to measure teacher support, and five from a scale adapted from Willis et al. (2019). Community Adolescent Treatment Supporters (CATS) promote adolescent growth and academic engagement; the 5-item measure was based on this construct. The framework was created by Willis et al. (2019). The items sought Chinese teens’ opinions on local support systems that assist them to excel in school. Sample item: “I have access to community resources that help me with my studies.” For each item, the study used a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 strong agreement, to quantify support. The scale was tested for cultural relevance and language clarity before use. The Cronbach’s alpha of .79 for this scale indicated good psychometric properties and internal consistency reliability in the sample. This model of ecological systems theory captures the communitarian influence on community support and community development.
The Cronbach’s Alpha score of .84 indicates good internal consistency across teacher support measures. Cronbach’s Alpha of .91 for the Personality scale indicates strong internal consistency in the personality assessment items. Self-esteem assessments have desired internal consistency, as seen by their .87 Cronbach’s Alpha rating. Finally, Cronbach’s Alpha of .90 indicates high internal consistency for academic self-efficacy questions. Several important fit indices were employed to assess the model’s fit to the data. Structural equation modelling (SEM) relies on the chi-square goodness-of-fit test to assess the model’s replication of the covariance structure. AMOS 24.0 was used for confirmatory factor analysis to verify the measurement model. The model performed well in comparison to conventional benchmarks (Hu & Bentler, 1999. This study evaluated the observed Chi-Square value of 150.45 to assess model fit. The null hypothesis is not rejected since the
Statistical Analysis
The cross-sectional data make causal inferences challenging, although academic self-efficacy, personality traits, community resources, teacher support, family engagement, and self-esteem are strongly correlated. Even while mediation and moderation analyses reveal probable processes and interactions, they should be interpreted carefully. Without experimental or longitudinal data, the relative time and causal link of these factors cannot be determined. A longitudinal study is necessary to validate these connections and investigate developmental mechanisms over time. This constraint highlights the need for further research on Chinese adolescent development, but it does not undermine the present study’s findings.
SEM enables the investigation of complex relationships between latent and observable variables, and it corrects for measurement error. Before the structural model, a CFA verified the measurement model’s validity and dependability. This demonstrated that the concepts were distinct and loaded onto their latent variables. The mediation study revealed that self-esteem has an indirect effect on social support and academic self-efficacy. The moderating impact illuminates how character traits shape these linkages. The theoretical framework guided the selection of these statistical methods to capture the diverse social backdrop of adolescent development. To ensure the credibility of the study’s findings, it consistently offers model fit indices, coefficients, and significance values.
Ethical Considerations
The relevant Institutional Review Board approved all human subject studies to ensure ethical compliance. The study used anonymous surveys and no clinical, psychiatric, or physical therapies; thus, participants were safe. No personally identifying information was required, and participants may quit at any time without penalty, lowering the risk of harm. Weighing the minimal risks, the study may improve our understanding of adolescent academic self-efficacy and mental health. Participants had no adverse effects, and the findings may help improve educational and psychological therapy for children, families, teachers, and politicians. As authorised by the ethics committee, formal informed consent was waived since the research was non-invasive and safe. Students were clearly told of the study’s aims, that their participation was optional, that their information would be kept confidential, and that they might withdraw at any time. Being involved needed knowledge and consent. All data was securely stored, used exclusively for academic purposes, and anonymised to protect participants.
Results
Demographic Survey of the Respondents
Table 4 contains a detailed demographic summary of the study’s sample. Most participants, 40.0%, fall within the 15 to 16 age bracket. The next closest age group is 17 to 18, with 33.3%, and 26.7% are in the 13 to 14 age group. Gender representation is balanced, with 50.7% of students are boys and 49.3% of girls. Most participants (73.3%) reside in cities, with 26.7% in rural areas. Participants attend 60.0% of public schools, 26.7% of private schools, 9.3% of boarding schools, and 4.0% of home schools. The study’s sample is comprehensive, including major Chinese cities such as Beijing (24.0%), Shanghai (26.7%), Guangzhou (20.0%), and Chengdu (16.0%). This ensures a broad representation of urban demographics. Additionally, a smaller percentage (13.3%) of individuals from other locations is also recognised, further enriching the diversity of the study’s sample (Table 4).
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample.
Descriptive Statistics of the Variables
Table 5 shows a mean score of 4.10 with a standard deviation of 0.81, indicating that participants viewed their academic competence positively. Adolescents’ scholastic success depends on self-efficacy. The Family Support scale indicates that adolescents report moderate to high levels of family support, with a mean score of 3.75 and a standard deviation of 0.85. This support is crucial to their development. This finding highlights the significant role of the family in promoting adolescent health and academic success. The community resources’ average score of 3.50 and standard deviation of 0.75 indicate that adolescents’ communities have ample recreation and educational opportunities. Adolescents and their parents enjoy solid and supportive relationships, with a mean score of 4.00 and a standard deviation of 0.80. This highlights the importance of parental advice and emotional support in shaping teenagers’ perspectives and development. The mean score of 3.80 and the standard deviation of 0.70 in teacher support underscore the importance of excellent educator-student relationships in fostering active learning and academic achievement in the classroom. With an average score of 4.50 and a standard deviation of 0.90, personality characteristics reveal distinctive tendencies in teens, influencing their behaviour and interactions. Self-esteem, a key component of psychological well-being, had an average score of 4.12 with a standard deviation of 0.82, indicating that the study participants’ self-worth and self-perception varied. This finding highlights the importance of self-esteem in adolescent well-being, prompting researchers to explore this aspect of adolescent development further.
Descriptive Statistics.
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Table 6 presents the results of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), a statistical method for identifying hidden dimensions or components within visible data. Starting with Factor 1, academic self-efficacy (0.80), self-esteem (0.70), and familial support (0.72) appear linked. This suggests Factor 1 may represent a notion related to academic ability and mental health.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Results.
Academic Self-Efficacy’s high loading on Factor 1 affects adolescents’ academic self-perception. Personality type (0.60) and community resources (0.80) are factor 2 factors with substantial loadings. This suggests that Factor 2 represents a construct of natural resources and individual attributes. The significant weight of community resources on Factor 2 underscores the importance of extra-personal networks for teens’ development and satisfaction. Academic self-efficacy (0.75), Parent-child relationship (0.90), and Factor 3 exhibit significant loadings. Factor 3 may be linked to family relations and academic success. The substantial loading of the Parent-child relationship on Factor 3 shows the relevance of healthy family relationships in adolescent academic self-efficacy. Academic self-efficacy (0.70) and teacher support (0.85) have substantial factor loadings in Factor 4. Thus, Factor 4 may represent academic performance and educational help schemes. Positive teacher-student relationships promote academic success, as indicated by Factor 4’s high loading on teacher support. Finally, Self-esteem (0.75), personality type (0.95), and Factor 5 show substantial factor loadings. This supports the idea that Factor 5 is about self-perception and personality. The substantial loading of Personality type on Factor 5 indicates that personality traits significantly impact adolescents’ self-esteem and health.
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) Estimates
Table 7 presents the regression results for academic self-efficacy in adolescents, along with the strength and relevance of correlations among variables.
Regression Results for Academic Self-Efficacy.
Family support has a significant positive correlation with academic self-efficacy (
The results show a strong positive association between academic self-efficacy and parent-child relationships. This highlights the significance of supportive parent-child relationships in fostering adolescents’ self-esteem and academic confidence. Bowlby’s (1979) attachment theory, which this result supports, posits that secure attachments formed in infancy contribute to psychological well-being and resilience throughout life. Parental relationships significantly impact various aspects of adolescent development, including academic achievement. Affuso et al. (2023) found that good parent-child relationships boost academic self-efficacy and motivation in adolescents. Rao and Wang (2023) also emphasised the importance of authoritative parenting—characterised by warmth, responsiveness, and clear expectations—in enhancing teens’ self-esteem and academic confidence. Ma et al. (2024) emphasised the significance of parent-child communication and participation in promoting adolescent academic growth and academic self-efficacy. The study found a positive correlation between teacher support and academic self-efficacy with a standardised beta value of .35 (
Academic self-efficacy positively correlates with personality type (β = .20,
The research found a positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and self-esteem. This emphasises the significance of adolescents’ positive self-images in shaping their academic attitudes and behaviours. This finding supports self-determination theory, which posits that people’s fundamental desires for relatedness, competence, and autonomy underpin their motivation and behaviour (Rigby & Ryan, 2018). Self-esteem is crucial to self-determination theory because it helps individuals believe in themselves and their abilities, which boosts motivation and resilience while setting and achieving objectives. Self-esteem influences academic attitudes and actions in various ways. Hanif et al. (2023) observed that teens with strong self-esteem are more likely to push themselves academically, have confidence in their talents, and persevere after failure. Scherrer et al. (2023) also emphasised the significance of self-esteem in shaping students’ academic self-concepts and attributions.
Mediation Estimates
Table 8 illustrates how various predictor characteristics indirectly influence academic self-efficacy through self-esteem in the mediation research.
Mediation Analysis Results.
A significant indirect effect on academic self-efficacy (β = .25,
Moderation Analysis
Table 9 shows that personality moderates the correlations between the studied variables.
Moderation Analysis Results.
The results show that personality moderates academic self-efficacy and support. The interaction between personality type and family support has a favourable effect on academic self-efficacy. Some personality traits may be linked to familial support and academic self-efficacy. Parental support might boost academic confidence in certain personality types more than others. Teacher support and personality type interaction have a favourable effect on academic self-efficacy (β = .15,
Results summary.
According to the research, the studied variables support adolescent academic self-efficacy. The results indicate that family support, community resources, parent-child interactions, teacher support, personality type, and self-esteem have a positive and substantial impact on academic self-efficacy. Mediation and moderation analysis show that self-esteem mediates the relationship between support systems and academic self-efficacy, and personality type influences the impact of external support on academic confidence. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory (EST) posits that family support, school environment, and community resources collectively influence adolescents’ academic success. According to EST, adolescents with solid family and school support networks exhibit higher academic self-efficacy, supporting the premise that interconnected environmental systems influence development. According to social cognitive theory (SCT), academic self-efficacy mediates positive reinforcement from others into internal desire and classroom achievement in teens. The results support SCT’s claim that cognitive traits affect behaviour. Conscientiousness and resilience govern the relationship between external support and self-efficacy. This integrated argument adds new insight and strengthens the study’s theory by combining EST’s environmental lens with SCT’s cognitive framework.
Discussion
The present study examined how family support, teacher support, academic self-efficacy, and personality characteristics affected this construct using self-esteem as a mediator and personality attributes as a moderator. Family emotional and instrumental support, not just informational assistance, dramatically increases academic self-efficacy. Self-esteem, a mediator between social support and academic success, may motivate learners. Open and resilient students are more likely to benefit from social support networks than less adaptive ones, showing how personality traits moderate these interactions (Hou et al., 2024). The findings support Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, which emphasises the effects of environmental layers on human development. In the classroom, microsystemic factors, such as parental and instructor support, affect children’s self-esteem (Liaqat et al., 2025). According to both emotional and instrumental support, proximal effects such as encouragement, reassurance, and direct help increase self-efficacy more than informational resource access alone. This supports the relevance of local social networks on academic motivation.
The results also support Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasises the role of reinforcement processes and vicarious experiences in building self-efficacy. Teachers’ and parents’ praise promotes the idea that adolescents may excel academically (Zafiropoulou & Psilou, 2024). Bandura believed that internalised competency ideas, rather than external validation, built self-efficacy. The mediating effect of self-esteem supports this. These findings demonstrate the complex relationship between basic psychological processes and environmental reinforcement in academic achievement. According to previous research, self-esteem serves as a mediator between academic self-efficacy and family support (Martínez et al., 2024). Students with good self-esteem might gain confidence in their talents and expertise. Psychological support programmes in schools are important because treatments that boost students’ self-esteem may have a cascading effect on their academic performance (Wei et al., 2024). The moderation analysis reveals that personality traits have a significant impact on students’ gains in external assistance. More open and resilient students exhibited stronger links between family support and academic self-efficacy than less adaptive ones. These findings suggest that academic interventions should be tailored to adolescents’ personalities, coping mechanisms, and motivational factors (Gkintoni et al., 2024).
The data supported the hypotheses that self-esteem, family support, and teacher support directly affect academic self-efficacy. The findings also confirmed that personality factors moderate the effect of external support on academic motivation, suggesting that each adolescent’s response is unique. Educational leaders, instructors, and parents may benefit from the outcomes. Family-based therapy should provide both instrumental and emotional support, rather than just imparting knowledge (Pielech et al., 2024). Programmes encouraging parents to participate in their adolescents’ education and mental health are promising.
Furthermore, teacher training programmes should incorporate motivational reinforcement to enhance learner confidence. Schools should incorporate psychological support programmes, such as self-esteem seminars, into their class plans to help children become more resilient and self-confident (Hongell-Ekholm et al., 2024). Ultimately, educational institutions should recognise that personality traits influence students’ responses to various forms of support and adjust their support structure accordingly. Policymakers can enhance academic interventions by prioritising children and providing flexible support systems.
The study validates the structural model using sophisticated statistical methods, including SEM, mediation, and moderation analysis, which supports Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory and Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Mesosystemic factors influence teenage academic views and psychological well-being. The positive correlations between academic self-efficacy and family engagement, teacher support, and community resources support this finding. These results support prior research indicating that supportive family and school environments enhance academic achievement (Chemnad et al., 2025; S. Lin et al., 2024).
The study found that self-esteem mediates the favourable effects of social support into more internal impulses and worldviews. This suggests that self-efficacy programmes for teenagers should emphasise both external reinforcement and internal psychological resources (G. Zhang et al., 2024). Personality characteristics also moderate social support networks, showing how individual differences affect them. For instance, teens with more adaptive personality characteristics, such as emotional stability or conscientiousness, seemed to benefit more from the guidance (Doménech et al., 2024). This supports contemporary adolescent psychology research that emphasises personalising training to each student, as youngsters respond differently to various stimuli (Capurso et al., 2025; Karadag et al., 2025).
Notably, the study emphasises cultural uniqueness, as most academic self-efficacy research has been conducted in Western contexts; however, the study’s findings, drawn from a large and diverse population of Chinese teenagers, are culturally relevant (J. H. Kim & Kwon, 2025; Woreta et al., 2025). Due to its collectivist ethos, Chinese society places a high value on conformity, family, and academic achievement. Social support may have a greater influence on learners’ self-confidence in school (Flick et al., 2024). The study indicates a complicated interplay between collectivist ideals and individual psychological processes, yet personality and self-esteem are dynamic. By focusing on both, the study addresses gaps in cross-cultural educational psychology and enhances the model’s explanatory power.
Due to the cross-sectional approach, causal conclusions cannot be drawn, but the findings provide valuable insights into academic self-efficacy, support networks, personality variables, and self-esteem. Structural equation modelling allows the study of theoretical channels and indirect effects, although the findings are correlational. Future studies must employ experimental or longitudinal methods to confirm causality and temporal order. Harman’s single-factor test found no significant standard method variance, although this procedure may not eliminate bias in single-source data. Future studies may utilise time-separated tests to reduce common method bias or integrate data from parent, teacher, and peer evaluations to improve measurement validity. The results must be considered in light of China’s vast geographic and cultural diversity. Stratified random selection was employed to generate a representative sample; however, student experiences and viewpoints may vary by province due to disparities in education, family dynamics, and community resources. Thus, local differences may restrict generalizability. Comparative or regional studies should help researchers understand how sociocultural variety impacts adolescents’ development.
Conclusions and Policy Implications
This study examines the academic self-efficacy, personality qualities, community support, teacher participation, and family education of Chinese adolescents, utilising Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory and Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory. Instead of studying personal psychological qualities and external support networks separately, this study proposes a comprehensive paradigm that accounts for their interconnected impacts on mental health and academic achievement. The study reveals that self-esteem mediates the relationship between social support (from family, community, and instructors) and academic self-efficacy, highlighting the significance of emotional well-being in education. The moderation study also shows that students with different personality types respond differently to outside assistance. These results contribute to the discussion on personalised education by highlighting the need for targeted interventions that match students’ psychological traits. Its stratified sample from throughout China ensures that its findings can be applied to a wider range of circumstances and enhance the understanding of how adolescents grow up in contemporary China’s social and cultural environment. This research helps establish the necessity for multi-level interventions to support adolescent mental health and academic achievement, including those involving families, schools, and community-driven efforts.
Politicians, educators, and community leaders can utilise the study’s findings to adapt programmes that enhance adolescents’ mental health and academic achievement. Family support, community resources, and teacher involvement all contribute to boosting academic self-efficacy. Therefore, parental engagement initiatives and community-based educational resources should be policy objectives. Teachers should be trained to promote mentoring-based learning, which boosts students’ motivation and self-esteem. Self-esteem’s mediation role underlines the need for school counselling services, mental health awareness campaigns, and resilience-building workshops in educational policy. Personality is moderate; adolescents require tailored academic assistance, such as adaptive learning strategies, to succeed. Public agencies, academic institutions, and community organisations must work together to achieve success. Policy links to the study’s empirical conclusions provide a complete approach to academic attainment and health. This will enable evidence-based activities to boost adolescents’ cognitive development and psychological resilience.
The study’s findings inform school-based treatments, community support programmes, and educational policy to enhance teenagers’ academic and mental health. An integrated, multi-sectoral approach to adolescent development is necessary, as academic self-efficacy is strongly linked to support networks, particularly those provided by teachers, families, and communities. In underprivileged communities, policymakers should prioritise the construction and funding of community-based educational support centres, family participation seminars, and school activities that promote student-teacher relationships. To enable teachers to actively increase students’ academic self-confidence, teacher training programmes should incorporate skills that promote emotional and motivational support. Since self-esteem mediates, academic support programmes should prioritise mental wellness. Social-emotional learning (SEL) curriculum in conventional lesson plans may boost students’ self-esteem, resilience, and stress management. Self-esteem examinations and interventions by school psychologists and counsellors should focus on students who lack social support or academic confidence. Enhancing community ties among schools, families, and local organisations may provide a safety net of resources that boosts academic motivation. This study supports the premise that policies should consider students’ diverse cultural backgrounds and individual personalities. To ensure that all children receive adequate care, policy frameworks should consider the individual characteristics and contextual circumstances of adolescents. This personalised method ensures equal and effective outcomes in diverse educational settings. This study integrates research findings with evidence-based policy and practice to offer comprehensive ways for fostering adolescent development in contemporary China.
Although this study makes vital contributions, it also has some limitations. Cross-sectional studies cannot determine the causes and consequences of academic self-efficacy, personality traits, community support, and family education. Future studies may employ longitudinal methodologies to capture these components’ ever-changing interactions better. The study employed stratified random sampling to ensure variation; however, sample restrictions apply. The data were collected in specific Chinese locations; therefore, they may not apply to other socio-cultural contexts. Social desirability bias and subjective misinterpretation in self-reported questionnaire data may influence accuracy. Despite efforts to safeguard participants’ identities and minimise bias, future research should consider employing both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to validate and strengthen findings. Future research on adolescents’ academic achievement and mental health may be more robust and valuable if these limits are addressed.
Future research may include neurocognitive and behavioural assessments to understand better how self-esteem and personality affect academic success. Research should involve rural areas to capture cultural and socioeconomic differences in adolescent development. This would improve the generalizability of the findings. Research may investigate how online community engagement platforms, AI-based tutoring systems, and emerging digital learning tools impact adolescents’ academic self-efficacy. Ultimately, the comparative study may help us understand cross-cultural differences and identify the most effective approaches to support adolescents in thriving in school and maintaining their health. These prospective research lines may help refine educational policies and treatments to address adolescents’ evolving needs in ever-changing classrooms.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to all the participants and the proofreader provided the support to this research study.
Ethical Considerations
The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the University Ethics Committee (non-clinical) of the University of Glasgow (UEC/UG), and it was conducted in line with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki: UEC/UG/0324007.
Consent to Participate
All the participants’ information was hidden study and the informed consent from the participants was waived as the proposed study involved no risk to participants with minimal interventions with individuals. This is approved by the Ethical Committee of University of Glasgow. All the study strictly adhered to the research ethical guidelines outlined by UEC/UG.
Author Contributions
Ruoyi Chen: Conceptualisation, manuscript writing and editing, methodology, data analysis, and final validation; Quishi Sun: manuscript writing and editing, results validation, and supervision.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data will be available upon request.