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Abstract

The rise in problematic social media use (PSMU) among young adults necessitates a better understanding of this behavior. While adverse health effects of PSMU are well-documented, research on its contributing factors remains fragmented. This scoping review aims to identify the demographic and psychosocial factors affecting PSMU in emerging adults aged 18-29. We will analyze quantitative and qualitative studies on factors influencing PSMU, including antecedents, risk factors, moderators, and mediators. The following databases: PubMed, Medline, Embase, Scopus, and PsycINFO, will be systematically searched for relevant English articles published since 2019. Two reviewers will screen titles and abstracts, followed by full-text screening for eligible articles. Data extraction and assessment forms will be piloted, and thematic analysis will be used to synthesize findings. The findings will provide insights into factors contributing to PSMU among emerging adults, guiding future research, highlighting literature gaps, and informing policy development to address PSMU risks in this population.

Keywords

social media social networking problematic social media use addiction emerging adults

Introduction

The rapid advancement of information and communication technologies has revolutionized the human communication landscape and, in turn, their lives. Social media and social media networks have become the dominant communication channels for a large portion of the global population, especially among teenagers and young adults in their twenties (Ortiz-Ospina, 2019). As of 2024, approximately 5.04 billion people worldwide actively engage with at least one type of social media platform. Among these users, 59% are in the age group of 18 to 34 years, representing the demographic with the highest daily internet usage hours (Kemp, 2024).

The term “social media” refers to interactive internet-based technologies that enable users to create, share, and aggregate content, ideas, and interests within virtual communities and networks. It encompasses innovative forms of media characterized by active user participation and engagement (Obar & Wildman, 2015). Social media and online social networking platforms, such as social networking sites (SNSs), are often overlapping with terms that share some similarities; however, they serve distinct purposes. While social media comprises various online platforms for sharing content and engaging with others, SNSs, like Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram, specifically focus on building and maintaining relationships through these platforms (boyd & Ellison, 2007). However, both social media and SNSs share the inherent quality of being social (boyd & Ellison, 2007; Obar & Wildman, 2015; Ryan et al., 2017), which resonates well with the needs of people in the life stage of emerging adulthood (Allen et al., 2014). One of the proposed reasons why online communication platforms are particularly appealing to young people in their late teens and twenties is that they effectively fulfill their desire for autonomy (Marciano & Viswanath, 2023; Yang et al., 2021), social and emotional bonds (Allen et al., 2014; S. Jo & M. Y. Jang, 2023), and sense of connectedness and belonging (Clark et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2021). Existing evidence indicates moderate and purposeful engagement with social media and SNSs may offer many advantages for young people. Some of these advantages include promoting healthy lifestyle behaviours (Goodyear et al., 2021), facilitating communication, social connectedness, emotional well-being (Soojung Jo & Mi Young Jang, 2023), and enhancing educational outcomes (Sterling et al., 2017). On the other hand, some people who engage with social media can develop problematic and compulsive patterns of use known as problematic social media use (PSMU) (Varona et al., 2022). PSMU, also known as social media addiction or problematic social networking use, has become a significant health concern, especially among individuals in their early 20s (Chentsova et al., 2023). To date, there are several accepted and related definitions of PSMU; however, the wording used to describe these definitions could be improved. One of them defines PSMU as a behaviour marked by both excessive and addictive reliance on social media platforms (Cataldo et al., 2022). Svicher et al. (2021) defined PSMU as the lack of regulation in one’s use of social media, which is associated with negative outcomes in everyday functioning (Svicher et al., 2021). The core PSMU symptoms include lack of control over social media use, obsessive thoughts about going online, difficulty resisting the urge to use social media, and a preference for online communication over face-to-face interactions (Svicher et al., 2021). Empirical evidence suggests that individual differences, such as personality, platform preference and specific use motives, can predict PSMU (Kircaburun et al., 2020). Moreover, PSMU involves users who are strongly motivated to engage excessively with social media platforms, which can lead to overdependence and negative effects on their personal, professional, and social lives (Cataldo et al., 2022). Several studies have associated PSMU with various issues, including depression (Arrivillaga et al., 2022), low self-esteem (e.g., Bányai et al., 2017), high impulsivity (Sindermann et al., 2020), suicide risk (Keles et al., 2020), work impairments (e. g., Kuss et al., 2014), and low sleep quality (e.g., Xanidis & Brignell, 2016).

There is no standardized assessment instrument for PSMU due to the absence of a well-established theoretical framework (Varona et al., 2022). Various instruments are used to assess different aspects of negative social media use, including time spent online, frequency of use, emotional dependence, and negative consequences on concentration, emotional and cognitive behaviour, and social interactions. The lack of consensus on cut-off points and standardized instruments makes it challenging to identify when social media use has become problematic (Varona et al., 2022). Moreover, unlike internet gaming disorder, PSMU is currently not recognized as a disorder in the latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, some researchers have proposed that both problematic behaviours fall within the broader framework of internet addiction and can be evaluated using shared diagnostic criteria, including persistence, tolerance, escape, and conflict (Hussain & Starcevic, 2020; Varona et al., 2022). Setting standardized cut-off points for PSMU, like those used in diagnosing mental disorders, would streamline research and enable easier comparison and sharing of findings in the field (Kuss et al., 2014).

Several systematic reviews have highlighted the negative impact of excessive social media use on young people’s health and well-being, typically defined by frequency and hours spent engaging with social media. This includes unhealthy behaviours, such as increased alcohol consumption, drug and tobacco use, sexual risk behaviours, anti-social behaviour and multiple risk behaviours in adolescents aged 10-19 (Purba et al., 2023); mental health issues in those aged 13-18 (Keles et al., 2020); and increased rates of suicidal ideation and self-harm in young adults under 25 (Marchant et al., 2018). A recent systematic review and meta-analysis identified a relationship between PSMU and negative mental health outcomes, particularly higher depression and anxiety symptoms, and greater stress in adolescents and young adults (aged 12-30 years old) (Shannon et al., 2022). Moreover, several individual studies have suggested a link between PSMU and variety of psychosocial factors, including sense of belongingness and social connectedness (Hylkilä et al., 2023; Kırcaburun et al., 2019), social relationships (Hylkilä et al., 2023), subjective well-being (Marttila et al., 2021) and life satisfaction (Orben et al., 2022) among this demographic. Nevertheless, causal mechanisms leading to negative effects of PSMU on young peoples’ health and well-being remain not fully understood (Varona et al., 2022) and are likely driven by individual and contextual factors (Cataldo et al., 2022). Demographic characteristics, such as age and sex, have been identified as predictors of PSMU (Hylkilä et al., 2023; Laurence et al., 2020; van Duin et al., 2021). Furthermore, various psychosocial factors, such as social support (van Duin et al., 2021), loneliness (Hylkilä et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2024), low self-esteem (Bányai et al., 2017) and emotional well-being (Hylkilä et al., 2023; Schivinski et al., 2020), have been implicated in risk of PSMU. Individual studies have suggested a range of psychological and behavioral factors contributing to the development of PSMU, including symptoms of depression and anxiety (Bányai et al., 2017; Hylkilä et al., 2023); obesity (Jolliff et al., 2020); psychosomatic factors like sleeping problems (van Duin et al., 2021) and lifestyle choices such as smoking and physical activity (Hassan et al., 2020).

Despite previous documentation of the adverse health effects of PSMU among adolescents and emerging adults (aged 12-29 years old) (Shannon et al., 2022), a gap exists in our understanding of the most frequent factors that may determine why certain young people are more prone to developing PSMU compared to their peers. Exploring and summarizing these underlying factors is essential for targeted interventions and promoting healthier digital habits and digital literacy among young people (Hague & Payton, 2021). A preliminary literature search was conducted in April 2024 in PROSPERO, Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Evidence Synthesis, and PubMed. The search identified a scoping review on potential risk factors associated with social media use among children and adolescents (Bozzola et al., 2022). The researchers identified depression, dietary habits and psychological problems as the most frequent risks of extensive social media use among young people (≥18 years old), indicating that the relationship between these risk factors and social media use is likely bidirectional (Bozzola et al., 2022). However, it does not specifically delve into the most common factors linked to PSMU among age cohort between 18 and 29 years.

To address the above-mentioned knowledge gap, the current scoping review aims to identify and discuss the predominant factors that may influence development of PSMU as an outcome, specifically targeting the emerging adults (18-29 years) (Halfon et al., 2018). This scoping review will address key psychosocial and demographic factors linked to PSMU. It will determine the risk factors, predictors, and potential mediators or moderators of PSMU. Our selection of these two groups of factors associated with PSMU is informed by a preliminary literature search and two theories that have been used to explain PSMU. These include Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects model (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013) and Ecological Systems theory (McHale et al., 2009), that explains PSMU as an interplay between factors at micro (individual) and macro (contextual, environmental, or social) levels. The Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects model, proposed by Valkenburg and Peter (2013), suggests that individuals are influenced by media differently based on their personal characteristics and contexts. Factors like personality traits and social environments shape how individuals use social media, affecting their vulnerability to problematic usage. Ecological Systems Theory, articulated by McHale et al. (2009), examines human development within a multi-layered framework that considers interactions between individual and environmental factors across different contexts. It posits that PSMU is not solely the result of individual traits but also of various external influences, such as family, peers, and cultural environments. For instance, a young adult’s social media engagement may be affected by their family dynamics, peer pressure, and the societal norms surrounding social media use, making them more vulnerable to PSMU. Together, these models underscore that understanding PSMU requires a holistic approach that considers both personal vulnerabilities and the contextual influences that shape social media behaviours. A scoping review methodology was selected as well-suited for mapping research evidence and offering a comprehensive overview of key concepts on the topic (Peters et al., 2024). Given the potential diversity of factors related to PSMU, a scoping review is more appropriate than a systematic review, which may not be suitable for pooling and assessing these varied factors.

Review Question

What are the psychosocial and demographic determinants of PSMU among emerging adults aged 18-29 years in the general population?

Eligibility Criteria

Participants

This scoping review will focus on studies examining factors related to PSMU among emerging adults. We will include studies if the participants fall within the age range of 18 to 29 years. If the study includes participants outside this range, it will only be included if the mean age of the sample falls within the specified range and all participants are 18 years or older. Our objective is to identify universal determinants of PSMU that apply to the general young adult population. Thus, we will focus on factors that are relevant to a broader spectrum of young adults, providing a general understanding of PSMU trends and mechanisms. Compared to people with no mental health problems, people with mental health disorders are more likely to engage in PSMU, which can worsen their symptoms (Aydin et al., 2020; Çökmüş et al., 2022). In addition, minority groups (racial, ethnic, religious, sexual orientation, and gender identity minorities) are often marginalized and underrepresented in society, and these experiences have been linked to a higher risk of PSMU among these populations (Vogel et al., 2021). Therefore, studies involving young adults with minority backgrounds, physical or mental health issues, or other specific subpopulations will be excluded to ensure the findings are representative of the general young adult population.

Concept

The concept of interest is PSMU, defined as a lack of regulation in one’s social media use, leading to negative outcomes in everyday functioning. This includes excessive, addictive, or compulsive use, as well as terms such as social media use disorder, social media addiction, misuse, overuse, and dependency (Svicher et al., 2021). For the present study, we will include studies assessing addictive or problematic behaviours related to social media use on platforms of Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and X. We chose these platforms due to their global popularity and widespread use among emerging adults. Studies that focus exclusively on general internet use, gaming, or online activities related to harassment and inappropriate behaviour (e.g., sharing personal information with strangers, cyberbullying) will be excluded. We will analyze only studies that provide clear criteria or operational definition of PSMU.

Context

We will consider only studies conducted in the general population and non-clinical context.

Types of Sources

Social media platforms have rapidly evolved over recent decades, with platforms like TikTok and Instagram dominating in 2020s and attracting millions of daily active users. Therefore, this scoping review will assess only primary research evidence published from 2019 to 2025. This selection criteria was applied to include recent studies reflecting current trends in PSMU and related factors. These include analytical observational studies encompassing prospective and retrospective cohort studies, case-control studies, intervention-based studies and analytical cross-sectional studies. Additionally, we will consider descriptive observational study designs, such as case series, individual case reports, descriptive cross-sectional studies, mixed method studies and qualitative studies. Due to limited funding and translation resources, we will not include non-English publications. Other types of literature such as systematic reviews or other types of reviews, opinion papers, conference abstracts and grey literature will not be considered. The reference list of studies that meet the inclusion criteria will be evaluated to identify eligible studies.

Methods

The proposed scoping review will be conducted in accordance with JBI methodology for scoping reviews (Peters et al., 2024) and following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (Tricco et al., 2018).

Search Strategy

To ensure a comprehensive overview of the field, our systematic search strategy aims to be as broad as feasible. Our approach involves a three-step process. In step 1, an initial limited search of Medline was undertaken on 1st April 2024 to identify key articles on the topic. The text words contained in the titles and abstracts of relevant articles, and the index terms used to describe the articles were used to refine a final search strategy. In step 2, the search strategy will be developed in a consultation with an experienced librarian and following the Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies (PRESS) guideline (McGowan et al., 2016). In step 3, the final search strategy will be executed in Medline, Embase, Scopus and PsycINFO. The search will identify studies under the intersection of the following search concepts: “problematic social media use” and “young or emerging adults”, through use of relevant terms and text word searches. The preliminary search strategy for Medline is presented in Appendix I. The reference list of all included sources of evidence will be screened for additional relevant studies.

Study/Source of Evidence Selection

Following the search, all identified citations will be collected and imported to EndNote (V.20.1, Clarivate, Philadelphia, USA), and duplicates removed. Titles and abstracts will then be screened by two independent reviewers for assessment against the inclusion criteria for the review. The full text of selected citations will be assessed in detail against the inclusion criteria. Potentially relevant studies will be retrieved in full, and their citation details imported into the Rayyan instrument (for more information see https://rayyan.ai/). Rationale for excluding full-text studies that do not meet the inclusion criteria will be documented and made accessible upon request. Any disagreements that arise between the reviewers at each stage of the study selection process will be resolved through discussion or with a third reviewer. The results of the search will be reported in full in the final scoping review and presented in a PRISMA-ScR flow diagram (Page et al., 2021).

Data Extraction

Data will be extracted from the papers included by two independent reviewers. A data extraction instrument developed by the reviewers and based upon the research question will be used (See Appendix II, Table 1). The extracted data will encompass specific details such as author(s), publication year, type of publication, study setting, research aims, study design, and population demographics (including age, race, and gender). Additionally, key findings relevant to the scoping review’s questions and objectives will be recorded. The data extraction instrument has been adapted from the guidelines provided by the JBI methodology for scoping reviews format (Peters et al., 2024). A draft data extraction table is provided in Table 2, Appendix II. Throughout the data extraction process, the draft extraction instrument will be continually modified and revised as needed. In cases of disagreement between reviewers, resolution will occur through discussion or with the involvement of a third reviewer. Furthermore, authors of the reviewed papers will be contacted to obtain any missing or additional data. All modifications made during the data extraction process will be documented in the scoping review.

Quality Assessment of Studies

Systematic reviews include critiquing research evidence through JBI checklists evaluating study design methodology quality. JBI critical appraisal instruments, while intended for systematic reviews, also assess paper trustworthiness, relevance, and results in scoping reviews (Joanna Briggs Institute- JBI, n.d). Developed and peer-reviewed by the JBI Scientific Committee, these instruments offer high validity, easy administration, and quick evaluation. The appraisal aims to evaluate study methodology and bias possibilities. All studies that meet inclusion criteria for this scoping review will undergo rigorous appraisal by two independent reviewers to inform result synthesis. Reviewers will assess studies for bias risk or result quality based on predefined criteria. Discrepancies between evaluators will be resolved by consensus or a third reviewer. Rationales for quality assessments (inclusion or exclusion) will be documented for credibility and reliability of this scoping review findings.

Data Analysis and Presentation

The data extracted will be organized and presented either in diagrammatic or tabular format, aligning with the review questions. Accompanying these visual representations, a narrative summary will be provided. This summary will be in line with the review’s objective of mapping and describing the key demographic and psychosocial determinants of PSMU among emerging adults. The specific approach to data analysis and presentation will be contingent upon the evidence collected during the scoping review and may evolve accordingly.

Dissemination

The data will be extracted from published articles, and no individual information will be included. The dissemination plan will include peer-reviewed publication, conference events and other network events targeting social media use among young people and in general. To ensure broader reach, we will also disseminate our findings through social media platforms, public-facing communications and others.

Strengths and Limitations

This scoping review represents an up-to-date synthesis of psychosocial and demographic factors contributing to PSMU among emerging adults. The outcomes of this review will provide valuable insights for (1) enhancing digital literacy among this age group and young people in general, (2) addressing their health and well-being concerns, and (3) recommendations for future research. Guided by established scoping review methodology frameworks, this protocol aims to enhance methodological rigor and transparency in identifying relevant literature, thereby facilitating replication. Specific intersections of relevant demographic and psychosocial influential factors throughout data charting, analysis, and reporting will be considered. A limitation of this scoping review is that it aims to explore a broad range of existing factors linked to the PSMU among young people aged 18-29, lacking a specific question typical of systematic review.

Conclusions

This scoping review aims to offer a thorough synthesis of evidence on the predominant demographic and psychosocial factors influencing the onset and perpetuation of PSMU during emerging adulthood. Through our findings, we intend to shed light on research gaps and limitations in understanding the antecedents, risks, and contributing factors to PSMU during this life stage, providing valuable insights to shape future research. The results will be valuable for clinicians, policymakers, educators, and professionals engaging with young adults, providing a relevant evidence-based approach. We aim to disseminate our findings to stakeholders in public health, education, research, and policy to promote safe and beneficial social media usage within this age group.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Psychosocial and Demographic Determinants of Problematic Social Media Use Among Emerging Adults: A Scoping Review Protocol

Supplemental Material for Psychosocial and Demographic Determinants of Problematic Social Media Use Among Emerging Adults: A Scoping Review Protocol by Ivana Bojanic, Beata Joanna Godejord in Emerging Adulthood.

Footnotes

Author Note

Bojanic and Godejord conceptualised the study. Bojanic,Godejord and Norman developed the search strategy. Bojanic and Godejord formulated the design and drafted the manuscript. Both authors critically reviewed the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Samira Behboudi Gandevani,Associate Professor at Nord University,for her contributions to the revision of this protocol. We would also like to thank Malin Elisabeth Norman,an experienced librarian at Nord University,for her contribution and expertise in designing the final search strategy and translating it for other databases.

ORCID iD

Ivana Bojanic

Ethical Approval

Ethical approval or consent to participate is not necessary for this protocol and scoping review.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article: this study is founded by the Nord University,Norway. The founder has no conflict of interest regarding the results of this scoping review.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Transparency and Openness Statement

Are the raw data in this manuscript openly available for download? In this scoping review,the raw data and analysis involve secondary data. The rationale for inclusion/exclusion of studies will be documented and available upon request or included in the supplementary materials of the published manuscript. For quantitative analyses,is the analysis code/syntax openly available for download? Not applicable. Please refer to point 1 for details. For qualitative analyses,are the list of questions and coding manuals openly available for download? Not applicable. Please refer to point 1 for details. Are all materials used in the study openly available for download? The references of the included studies will be presented in the results section,and access to open-access articles will be publicly available. Requests for access to the research articles in this scoping review will also be accommodated. Did this study include a pre-registration plan for data collection and/or analysis? No.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Ivana Bojanic,Ph.D.,is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences,Nord University,Norway. She is involved in public health research and educates pharmacy and nursing students on health and academic topics. Her research focus is on exploring the factors influencing health and well-being among vulnerable populations,especially among young adults. Ivana actively participates in research projects and publications that delve into the mental health,well-being and psychosocial behaviors during emerging adulthood. Her studies draw from a comprehensive national survey on student health in Norwegian higher education,known as The Students’ Health and Well-being Study (SHoT).

Beata Godejord,Ph.D.,is an Associate Professor in a Business School,Nord University,Norway. In her PhD work she explored socio-cultural phenomena in synchronous communication online environments. Her research interests focus on social interaction in digital communications contexts as well as knowledge processes and learning opportunities in digital media. She teaches courses in media theory and communication,educational use of social media,digital formation and digital game-based learning.

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