Benefits and Challenges of Transnational Education: Reflections From a Sino-British Joint Venture University

Abstract

Since the turn of the 21^st Century, the higher education sector has witnessed a proliferation of transnational education arrangements, including joint venture universities. Concurrently, there has been a surge in published literature on transnational higher education. While the current literature on transnational education explores various issues including with respect to regulation, management, quality assurance, and impact, there is a deficit of lived accounts of the benefits and challenges of transnational education from teacher perspectives and pedagogic tools used to deal with language and learning culture differences in transnational education settings. Based on the author’s own experience in a Sino-British joint venture university in China, this paper draws on in-class observations, reviews of seminar recordings, informal conversations with students, and anecdotal reflections to highlight the potential of using student audio podcasts to mitigate oral reticence and increase interactions in lectures and seminars.

Introduction

Transition from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995 inspired a surge in international trade (WTO, n. d). While GATT focused on trade in goods, WTO and its agreements (particularly the General Agreement on Trade in Services), established a more liberal trade order incorporating trade in services and intellectual property, and accelerating globalization and internationalization in various sectors including higher education (Ziguras, 2003, 90; Altbach & Knight, 2007, 291). Since becoming a WTO member in 2001, China has opened-up its higher education space (Chen, 2011, 81; Ergenc, 2020, 2), allowing the creation and operation of Sino-foreign cooperative universities within its territory. In 2006, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University (XJTLU) became the third transnational university to start operating in China, following the University of Nottingham Ningbo China in 2004 and the Beijing Normal University – Hong Kong Baptist University United International College in 2005; by 2017, the number of transnational universities in China had risen to 9 (Xiao, 2018).

There has also been a surge in published literature on transnational higher education since the turn of the 21^st century, including with respect to questions of regulation (e.g., Huang, 2003; Marginson & Wende, 2007; McBurnie & Ziguras, 2001), impact (e.g., Ding, 2019; McNamara & Doyle, 2014), quality assurance (e.g., Coleman, 2003; Nhan & Nguyen, 2018), and management (e.g., Shams & Huisman, 2012; Stafford & Taylor, 2016; Taylor, 2010). However, not much of the literature reports benefits and challenges of transnational education within the specific context of China where cultures of learning remain largely teacher-centred. Also there is a dearth of detailed individual accounts about pedagogical strategies used by foreign academic instructors to overcome linguistic and learning culture differences for active learning engagement in China’s transnational universities where diversity in staff and student composition is accompanied by diversity in pedagogies employed, including participatory pedagogies (Xiao, 2018). Sharing strategies and techniques for increasing interactivity in transnational education classrooms, especially in the current context of pandemic-imposed mobility restrictions, potentially facilitate evidence-informed pedagogic innovation, adoption, and adaptation in Chinese higher education.

Focusing on modules taught in XJTLU’s Department of International Studies, this article reflects on incorporation of technology and student podcasts into the author’s teaching practice as a strategy for promoting inclusivity, student voice and student discursive participation in the classroom. Based on a social constructivist theoretical framework which emphasizes interactions among students and with their teacher for high-level critical thinking, analytical, and knowledge application abilities, the research accompanying the reflection in this article aimed to determine if integrating student podcasts in module delivery designs fosters student interactivity in a China-situated transnational education classroom. Two research questions are explored: (1) Do student audio podcast recording tasks foster student interactivity in seminars? (2) Do student audio podcast recording tasks foster interactivity in lectures?

To answer these questions, a qualitative methodology involving observations of two modules incorporating student podcasts in XJTLU’s Bachelor of Arts (BA) in International Relations (IR) programme was used. Observations reveal students participating more actively in lectures and seminars on topics for which students produced podcasts relative to those for which students did not record podcasts. However, given the limitation of observations to two IR modules in a single university, it is prudent to consider this article’s linkage between student audio podcasts and increased classroom interactivity as a tentative postulate begging for more extensive pedagogic research with respect to benefits and challenges of seminar-integrated student podcasting in Chinese higher education. This paper proceeds in a number of sections. First, it discusses the theoretical framework inspiring integration of student audio podcasts in delivery designs of the two XJTLU modules observed in this study. Second, it outlines XJTLU’s transnational context and its benefits to students, staff, and the university. Next, it reports challenges experienced and technology-based mitigation strategies adopted especially with respect to integration of student audio podcasts in the modules of research focus in this paper. Finally, the observation-based design used to interrogate the effectiveness of student podcasts for fostering interactivity is reported together with related findings.

Theoretical framework and related literature

In the traditional lecture-dominated approach to teaching and learning, the teacher does all the talking in class while students passively make notes. Teacher-centred pedagogic approaches emphasize distinctive roles for the teacher and the students: ‘the teacher teaches and the students are taught…the teacher talks and the students listen meekly’ (Freire, 1996, 54). However, the traditional teacher-centred approach has been widely challenged by several critical education scholars calling for more active student engagement and staff-student partnerships in teaching and learning (e.g., Bovill et al., 2016; Peters & Mathias, 2018; Seale et al., 2015). In the critical pedagogy perspective, active student engagement in teaching and learning activities increases student attention, motivation, comprehension, retention, and high-level critical thinking and knowledge application abilities.

This article adopts a social constructivist theoretical framework aligned with critical pedagogy given the wide ranging benefits of active student participation in teaching and learning activities. In social constructivism, the student’s voice is pertinent for promoting dialogue and constructing knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978), especially in political and social science classrooms dealing with more abstract concepts than the physical sciences. Social constructivism allows for student-student and student-teacher verbal interactions via which students can test the persuasiveness of their (and others’) views and negotiate alternative viewpoints whilst having misconceptions ‘taught back’ (Pask, 1975) and developing interpersonal skills (including communication and problem-solving skills) relevant for the workplace.

By emphasizing interactivity for critical thinking, analytical, and problem-solving abilities in its pedagogic perspective, social constructivism allows displacement of the teacher from ‘sage on the stage’ doing all the speaking to ‘guide on the side’ (King, 1993) facilitating conversations for active learning. For informed conversations to happen for effective co-construction of knowledge in the classroom, course designs should ensure student exposure to information and ideas, and opportunities to interact with fellow students, teachers, and course materials (Fink, 2003). Many political scientists draw on this constructivist wisdom to design interactive learning activities in the classroom, including in-class discussions (Damron & Mott, 2005), debates (Abernathy & Forestal, 2021; Omelicheva & Avdeyeva, 2008), and simulations (Asal & Blake, 2006; Wedig, 2010).

However, most of the above-mentioned studies on interactive designs in political science were conducted in Western institutions with liberal social constructivist pedagogic cultures which encourage active speech in the classroom. Chinese and other Asian cultures of teaching and learning are more teacher-centred (Jin & Cortazzi, 2006, 10–11; Ergenc, 2020, 4; Pham, 2022, 1–2), implying possible clashes in teaching and learning cultures in Chinese transnational education institutions which encourage active pedagogies but are diverse communities bringing together teachers and students from diverse pedagogic backgrounds. While transnational higher education in China has many benefits as shown in the next section with reference to XJTLU’s own specific context where this study was done, navigating language and learning culture differences to achieve interactivity in diverse but largely Chinese-composed classrooms is challenging.

Various techniques and strategies for increasing student interactivity have been published by critical pedagogy practitioners (e.g. Steinert & Snell, 1999). Although audio, video, and audio-visual materials figure among the recommended tools (due to their potential to establish emotional connections, analytical and problem-solving curiosity among learners), they are rarely integrated in classroom activities. In the two XJTLU modules observed in this study, namely International Political Economy and International Politics of Development in Africa, inclusion of student audio podcasts in module delivery was informed theoretically by social constructivism and pragmatically by challenges of student reticence.

XJTLU’s transnational context and its benefits

There is no universal consensus on the definition of transnational higher education (TNE). An oft-cited definition is provided by the Council of Europe (2002) which portrays TNE as ‘all types and modes of delivery of higher education study programmes or sets of courses of study, or educational services (including those of distance education) in which the learners are located in a country different from the one where the awarding institution is based’. Within the context of XJTLU, however, some degree programmes provide learners with (2 + 2) options to undertake the initial 2 years of their studies in China and the final two in the UK.

XJTLU was established in 2006 as a Sino-British joint venture university, founded by Xi’an Jiaotong University in China and the University of Liverpool (UoL) in the UK (XJTLU: Overview & Facts, n.d.). Located in Suzhou in China’s Jiangsu province, XJTLU offers over 100 undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, including in the fields of architecture, business, finance, social science, engineering and science (XJTLU: Overview & Facts, n.d.). XJTLU’s transnational education status hinges on the fact that successful undergraduate students of the university are awarded two degree certificates, one from the Chinese Ministry of Education and one from UoL. Successful postgraduate students are awarded a UoL degree recognised by the Chinese Ministry of Education (XJTLU: Overview & Facts, n.d.).

Consistent with its vision to ‘become a research-led international university in China and a Chinese university recognised internationally’ (XJTLU: Vision and Mission, n.d.), the university has a strong commitment to internationalisation. In line with its internationalisation commitment and notwithstanding the adverse effects of the covid-19 pandemic in the last 3 years, XJTLU’s over 1000 staff and over 18000 student population is culturally diverse with a majority of the faculty being foreign nationals (XJTLU: Overview & Facts, n.d.). XJTLU’s Sino-British TNE status has various beneficial implications for students, staff, the university and China.

For students, the prestige of getting two first degree certificates (one from XJTLU and one from UoL) potentially enhances employability and further education prospects in China and the global market, largely as a function of the following factors: First, programmes are taught in English, giving students the opportunity to develop at least some proficiency in a globally used language (McKay, 2018, 12). Second, international diversity in the university’s composition exposes students to foreign cultures and values, leveraging inter-cultural learning and development of inter-cultural competence (McNamara & Doyle, 2014, 19).

Third, compliance with transnational quality assurance requirements of XJTLU’s regulatory bodies, including the Chinese Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Department of Education, UoL and the UK’s Quality Assurance Agency (XJTLU, 2021), guarantees degree- and subject-appropriate quality learning and assessment standards and experiences although the quality assurance processes can be time consuming and burdensome in terms of paperwork. Fourth, XJTLU’s commitment to the UK higher education professional standards framework (UKPSF) by virtue of the university’s link with UoL potentially allows access to active, problem-based learning and teaching approaches that are evidence-informed via research, scholarship, and professional development (UKPSF, V3).

For staff members (to whom UKPSF is more directly applicable), benefits of XJTLU’s TNE status include participation in professional development programmes – such as the Postgraduate Certificate in Teaching and Supporting Learning in Higher Education (PGCert) with UoL as the awarding institution – potentially enhancing professional effectiveness and career prospects. Related to professional development and consistent with quality assurance processes of XJTLU’s transnational regulators, teaching staff subject their teaching and learning support methods as well as their major student assessments (those contributing to 20% or more of final module marks) and related assessment feedback to internal (within XJTLU) and external (outside XJTLU) peer observation/review including by UoL. Through participation in peer observation processes and making amendments as suggested in observation/review reports, staff members get the opportunity to ensure professional effectiveness by developing appropriate skills in student support (UKPSF, A4) while conforming to the broader professional milieu in which higher education operates (UKPSF, V4).

Also, UoL–XJTLU ties provides the latter’s academic staff affiliated access to the former’s reputable collection of library (including e-books and articles) and information communication and technology (ICT) resources, facilitating innovative research and learning support to students. Furthermore, staff members can draw on teaching experiences of colleagues from various countries, including the UK, to enrich their teaching practice while learning new languages and developing inter-cultural competence.

For the university, though quality assurance requirements of its regulatory bodies are onerous, they ensure the competitive edge associated with TNE institutions (Altbach & Knight, 2007), potentially attracting students and financial resources to the university. In another vein, XJTLU’s transnational status imposes a challenge of establishing and sustaining mechanisms for managing linguistic barriers and differences in learning cultures of domestic (Chinese) and international students and staff members. However, the university has suitable ICT infrastructure, including a virtual learning platform (Learning Mall Online) which, as demonstrated in the next section, is far from perfect but helps in facilitating inclusive participation in learning and teaching especially during the current Covid-19 pandemic. Ultimately, XJTLU’s association with UoL enables it to provide top-notch education while fostering diversity in China’s higher education system and equipping students with active learning-based qualifications and interpersonal skills for further education and/or employment in China and overseas.

Challenges experienced and mitigation strategies

While benefits of XJTLU’s transnational status are prominent in the Department of International Studies (INS) harbouring the two modules of research focus in this paper, various challenges, including linguistic barriers and differences in cultures of teaching and learning are also present. This section discusses challenges experienced by the author and technology-based mitigation strategies adopted, specifically with reference to integration of student audio podcasts in the two modules of focus in this paper: International Political Economy and International Politics of Development in Africa. Both are foundational modules in the BA in IR programme.

In the 2021–2022 academic year observed in this study, each module had between 40 and 50 students, majority of them Chinese and a minority from other countries in Asia, Africa, Europe and North America. The same cohort participated in International Politics of Development in Africa in Semester 1 and International Political Economy in Semester 2. Within the context of XJTLU’s transnational partnership, INS has ties with UoL’s Department of Politics which have been beneficial for resource sharing, professional development and quality assurance in teaching, supporting and assessing learning outcomes. Notwithstanding the benefits of international diversity and cooperation derived from XJTLU’s TNE status, there are pertinent challenges.

To start with, stringent Covid-19 control measures have prevented some international students from (re)entering China for classes on campus. To ensure inclusive participation in higher education in conformity with the values of UKPSF (V2, V3), BigBlueButton (BBB) was used on XJTLU’s virtual learning platform to deliver hybrid (concurrent onsite and online) lectures and seminars. However, the synchronised model is not challenge-free. Sometimes, due to overload with many participants logging in at the same time, the system malfunctions causing delays to the start of lectures. But, malfunction has never been too severe and protracted (beyond 15 minutes) to warrant cancellation of a timetabled teaching session. Because some of the students are located in Western Europe and Africa with time zones that are many hours behind China Standard Time, teaching sessions were scheduled in the afternoon to accommodate students overseas. As some of the students are in locations with weak internet infrastructure, efforts were made to record all teaching sessions. Students can then access recordings when their internet connection is stronger.

To effectively engage students online, teaching assistants were employed to support in populating LMO with teaching and learning resources, including relevant videos and readings. During hybrid lectures and seminars, teaching assistants helped to note and collate student contributions on BBB, thereby facilitating more meaningful knowledge construction interactions with onsite participants.

Though in-class discussions and interactivity are critical for developing English communication skills and supporting (student) peer learning while providing opportunities to ‘teach-back’ misconceptions and develop student sensibilities to the challenges of Africa and the international political economy, most Chinese students seldom spoke in class unless prompted. Promoting student verbal participation for active learning, albeit essential and emphasized in social constructivist critical pedagogy, was the most prominent challenge experienced in the modules focusing on Africa and the international political economy.

In the 2020–2021 academic year, to determine sources of Chinese student verbal passivity in International Political Economy, informal chats were held with some colleagues and students. Per the chats, student reticence was due at least in part to limited English proficiency and student shyness in some cases, especially as Chinese students are typically socialized into classroom cultures wherein they are neither expected to question instructors nor engage with learning materials critically (Ergenc, 2020, 4). Also, absence or limited opportunities for student verbal interactivity have been highlighted in education literature as a contributor to oral reticence in the classroom (e.g., Lee and Ng, 2010). Nevertheless, given insights from social constructivism reviewed earlier and consistent with advocacies for student voice and staff-student partnerships in teaching and learning activities towards the attainment of higher order critical thinking and knowledge application skills (Peters & Mathias, 2018; Seale et al., 2015), promoting verbal interactivity in the classroom is imperative.

While a colleague had previously used audio podcasts as a form of assessment in International Political Economy, student podcasting tasks were adapted and integrated in seminars in both the international political economy and Africa-related modules in the 2021–2022 academic year. Student audio podcasts are considered within the context of this study as student-produced audio (MP3) files that are uploaded by students on the university’s virtual learning platform (LMO) and then downloaded and played by the teacher during seminars on classroom computers to the hearing of the entire class. After collectively listening to a podcast, podcast content is used by the teacher to pinpoint major themes and debates while initiating seminar discussions.

The audio podcast tasks typically required each student to record for 5–10 minutes one podcast on one topic (and one country for the Africa-focussed module), drawing on at least one module reading. It was expected that this minimum requirement for the podcast tasks would provide opportunities for students to reflect on prescribed scholarly readings, critically apply concepts and theories, and communicate convincingly using easily accessible voice-recording technology and gadgets to practice expressing academic content in English in private spaces. Also it was envisaged that recording in private settings would relieve any anxieties of speaking to live audiences. Listening collectively to podcasts in seminars would arouse learner curiosity, stimulate attention, instigate emotional connections in the classroom while increasing interactivity and bringing students’ voices to bear on knowledge co-construction processes as students listen and respond to podcast content used to pitch classroom discussions. As there is no published record of student audio podcasts being used previously as an integrated element of seminars in political science-related modules in TNE classrooms in China, evaluating the interactivity effectiveness of this innovation within XJTLU is vital.

The use of student podcasts as a pedagogical tool is rare in political science education. Podcasts have been used both as a primary (Taylor, 2009, 119) and supplementary (Roberts, 2008) resource for delivering course content by political science instructors. More recently, podcasts have been used as a form of assessment especially in response to students’ demands for fewer essay assignments (Obradovic-Wochnick & Hayes, 2017, 416; McMahon, 2021). Whether prepared by lecturers in delivering course content or by students in fulfilment of assessment requirements, audio podcasts have so far served as unidirectional tools of communication from teachers to students or vice versa. Audio podcasts have not been used actively inside political science classrooms to prompt critical discussion and collaborative learning as applied in my module on Africa.

Research design and findings

So, did inclusion of student audio podcasts in module seminar designs of International Political Economy and International Politics of Development in Africa enhance student interactivity in seminars and lectures? As most Chinese participants in International Politics of Development in Africa had little prior experience or knowledge about Africa, and hence were inclined to be more passive in the Africa-focussed module relative to the module on international political economy, the design used in this study to evaluate the effect of audio podcasts on student interactivity prioritized observations of classes in the Africa-focused module. In addition to real time in-class observations in the two modules, audio-visual recordings of seminars in the module on Africa were reviewed for instances of verbal interactivity.

Over 14 weeks of teaching in each semester, while delivering 2-hour lectures to the entire class and coordinating 1-hour seminars for groups of 20–25 students (2 seminar groups per module) weekly, the module leader observed student behavioural responses to vocal participatory activity invitations. The module leader paid particular attention to students’ interactive attitudes during periods when teaching and learning feedback-related questions were posed by instructor and students in lectures and during discussion opportunities in seminars.

Within the framework of a ‘teaching in transnational contexts’ assignment in an XJTLU teaching professional development training in December 2021, the module leader reviewed 16 seminar audio-visual recordings. From the observations, the module leader noted more active oral participations in 11 seminar sessions with student audio podcasts compared to 5 sessions without podcasts. In the 11 sessions in which podcasts were played and collectively listened, an average of 3 student-to-teacher vocal participation instances were noted (in addition to several instances of students group-discussing issues curled from podcast content and students asking and responding to questions. Conversely, in the 5 sessions without podcasts, only 4 instances in total of student oral interjections were observed.

From real time in-class observations of student peer interactivity dynamics in seminars, the module leader noticed that students were generally more verbally expressive in groups that contained producers of collectively listened podcasts relative to other groups. The most speech-active participants in group discussions were students who produced seminar topic-related podcasts. However other students exhibited keenness to ask the podcaster questions seeking clarity on parts of podcast content and comparing country experiences recounted in the podcast to those of other countries of interest to the other students. This was particularly the case for topics relating to colonialism, slave trade, and foreign aid, on which country experiences vary. Regarding the question on interactivity in lectures, the module leader noticed from in-class observations that references in lectures to content from related student podcasts triggered student attention to comment, ask, and answer follow-up questions, allowing the module leader to clarify students’ understanding of basic concepts and theories while engaging them in knowledge construction, evaluation, and application in both modules.

During end-of-semester module delivery-related informal conversations with 6 students in the module on Africa, the students recounted largely positive experiences and learning gains from country-specialised student podcasting on topics covered in the module, although some concerns were reported with respect to lack visual aids and poor audio quality of some podcasts. In formal end-of-semester module feedback questionnaires administered by the university, the modules on Africa and international political economy recorded overall student satisfaction mean ratings of 4.56 and 4.76/5 respectively, with podcast-related features of seminars cited among elements that students found most interesting. Following anecdotal reflections over in-class observations, class recording reviews, informal conversations, and university-administered module feedback questionnaires, benefits from student podcasting tasks were achieved in the areas of communication and presentation skills, collaborative learning, teaching about diversity in Africa, and engagement with module readings during podcast preparation.

By preparing their podcasts individually and in their private space, students were relieved of some of the spectator anxieties associated with live presentations while getting the opportunity to talk and practice English academic communication skills. Also, for their self confidence and efficacy in recording podcasts and participating in podcast-related discussions, students engaged with the module’s recommended readings and additional self-sourced readings.

Also, student audio podcasts gave students opportunities to learn from the content of each other’s podcasts while allowing them to gain insight on the diversity of Africa and develop sensibilities to the challenges of different African countries. Furthermore, without student audio podcasts, the teacher would not have had the chance in seminars to flag and ‘teach back’ misconceptions such as the ‘Africa is a country’ stereotype (Randolph & DeMulder, 2008). Finally, real time collective listening to the podcasts triggered student attentiveness, facilitating teacher follow up on podcast content to spark student peer debates on themes such as the uniformity (or absence thereof) of Chinese engagements in different African countries.

However, there were a few instances where podcasts were not audible enough and it was impossible to check if all students online and onsite were mentally engaged with listening to the podcasts. Also, differences in accents among module participants and absence of podcast scripts or video aids implied challenges for some students in comprehending some podcasts.

Conclusion and future action research

This paper started off by describing XJTLU’s Sino-British transnational context and its benefits to students, staff, and the university as a whole. Benefits in terms of international diversity, double degree certificates, use of English as the language of instruction, and access to a wider pool of library and technological resources, were reported. While quality assurance mechanisms of XJTLU’s transnational regulators leverage the university’s potential for producing globally competitive graduates with inter-cultural competencies, requirements of the quality assurance processes can be administratively burdensome and time-consuming.

Benefits and challenges of XJTLU’s TNE status were then discussed within the specific context of the author’s own experience in XJTLU’s Department of International Studies. Upon identifying student oral reticence in the classroom as a challenge to constructivist-based active teaching and learning, this paper elaborated an innovation integrating student audio podcasts in module delivery designs of two IR modules. The incorporation of student podcasts effectively increased student fostered student interactivity in lectures and seminars.

Critically, however, the prose herein about the pedagogical benefits of student podcasts in TNE classrooms is based only on anecdotal reflections over in-class lecture and seminar observations, reviews of seminar audio-visual recordings, informal conversations, and university-administered module-feedback questionnaires. Moreover, the modules observed are in the same (IR) field and same Chinese TNE institution. Thus, the student interactivity benefits of student podcasts projected from this study have a limited empirical base. More systematic empirical research is needed to ascertain the pedagogic utility of integrating student podcasts in seminars. For more conclusive statements about the value of podcasting pedagogy in transnational and Chinese higher education contexts, future research could use interdisciplinary designs and in any case should interrogate student perceptions about the benefits of peer podcasts and challenges faced in producing audio podcasts and participating in podcast-based classroom discussions.