Although the impact of negative attitudes toward foreign countries in general (e.g., as a consequence of ethnocentric tendencies) and specific countries in particular (e.g., as a result of animosity feelings) on consumption behavior has received considerable attention in the literature, the nature of and potential for behavioral consequences of favorable attitudes have largely been neglected. In this study, the authors explore the construct of consumer affinity as a favorable and country-specific attitude by drawing from both the interdisciplinary literature on country-related attitudes and a series of complementary qualitative studies. Specifically, the authors (1) identify the defining conceptual characteristics of the consumer affinity construct, (2) explore the underlying bases/sources of affinity, (3) provide insights into the behavioral consequences of consumer affinity in terms of consumer decision making, and (4) propose a nomological network and generate a series of research propositions to conceptually guide further research on the construct.
AbersonChristopher L., HealyMichael, and RomeroVictoria (2000), “Ingroup Bias and Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis,”Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(2), 157–73.
2.
AldenDana L., SteenkampJan-Benedict E.M., and BatraRajeev (1999), “Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: The Role of Global Consumer Culture,”Journal of Marketing, 63(January), 75–87.
3.
AshforthBlake E., and MaelFred (1989), “Social Identity Theory and the Organization,”Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20–39.
4.
BalabanisGeorge, DiamantopoulosAdamantios, MuellerRene D., and MelewarT.C. (2001), “Impact of Nationalism, Patriotism and Internationalism on Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies,”Journal of International Business Studies, 32(1), 157–75.
5.
BalabanisGeorge, MuellerRene D., and MelewarT.C. (2002), “The Human Values’ Lenses of Country of Origin Images,”International Marketing Review, 19(6), 582–610.
6.
BartosRene (1991), Die Rolle der Frau als Konsumentin.Vienna: Ueberreiter.
7.
BirdAllan, and StevensMichael J. (2003), “Toward an Emergent Global Culture and the Effects of Globalization on Obsolescing National Cultures,”Journal of International Management, 9(4), 395–407.
8.
BokszanskiZbigniew (2001), “The Poles and Other Nations: On Factors Conditioning Attitudes Towards Foreigners,” working paper, Institute for Sociology, University of Lodz, Poland.
9.
BokszanskiZbigniew (2002), “The Poles and Their Attitudes Towards Other Nations: On the Conditions of an Orientation Towards Others,”Polish Sociological Review, 3(139), 255–74.
10.
BosticRaphael W. (2003), “A Test of Cultural Affinity in Home Mortgage Lending,”Journal of Financial Services Research, 23(2), 89–112.
11.
BotschenGuenther, and HemetsbergerAndrea (1998), “Diagnosing Means-End Structures to Determine the Degree of Potential Marketing Program Standardization,”Journal of Business Research, 42(2), 151–59.
12.
BrewerMarilynn B. (1979), “In-Group Bias in the Minimal Intergroup Situation: A Cognitive-Motivational Analysis,”Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 307–324.
13.
BrewerPaul A. (2007), “Operationalizing Psychic Distance: A Revised Approach,”Journal of International Marketing, 15(1), 44–65.
14.
BrijsKris, VanhoofKoen, BrijsTom, and KarlisDimitris (2006), “Using Fuzzy Set Theory to Assess Country-of-Origin Effects on the Formation of Product Attitude,” in Modeling Decisions for Artificial Intelligence, TorraV., NarukawaY., VallsA., and Domingo-FerrerJ., eds. New York: Springer-Verlag, 138–49.
15.
CannonHugh M., YoonSung-Joon, McGowanLaura, and YaprakAttila (1994), “In Search of the Global Consumer,” paper presented at the 1994 Annual Meeting of the Academy of International Business (March).
16.
ChurchillGilbert A., and IacobucciDawn (2005), Marketing Research: Methodological Foundations, 9th ed.Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western.
17.
CohenJoel B., and AreniCharles S. (1991), “Affect and Consumer Behavior,” in Handbook of Consumer Behavior, RoberstonsT.S., and KassarjianH.H., eds. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 188–240.
18.
CraigSamuel, and DouglasSusan P. (2005), International Marketing Research, 3d ed.New York: John Wiley & Sons.
19.
CraigSamuel, GreeneWilliam H., and DouglasSusan P. (2005), “Culture Matters: Consumers’ Acceptance of U.S. Films in Foreign Markets,”Journal of International Marketing, 13(4), 80–103.
20.
CrawfordJohn C., and LambCharles W. (1981), “Source Preferences for Imported Products,”Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management, 17(Winter), 28–33.
21.
DeVellisRobert F. (2003), Scale Development: Theories and Applications, 2d ed.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
22.
DharRavi, and WertenbrochKlaus (2000), “Consumer Choice Between Hedonic and Utilitarian Goods,”Journal of Marketing Research, 37(February), 60–71.
23.
DijkerAnton J. (1987), “Emotional Reactions to Ethnic Minorities,”European Journal of Social Psychology, 17(3), 305–325.
24.
DruckmanDaniel (1994), “Nationalism, Patriotism, and Group Loyalty: A Social Psychological Perspective,”Mershon International Studies Review, 38(1), 43–68.
25.
DruckmanDaniel, and HopmannTerrance P. (2002), “Content Analysis,” in International Negotiation: Analysis, Approaches, Issues, KremenyukV., ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 288–314.
26.
DuanChangming, and HillClara E. (1996), “The Current State of Empathy Research,”Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(3), 261–74.
27.
DurvasulaSrinivas, AndrewsCraig, and NetemeyerRichard G. (1997), “A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Consumer Ethnocentrism in the United States and Russia,”Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 9(4), 73–93.
28.
EaglyAlice H., MladinicAntonio, and OttoStacey (1994), “Cognitive and Affective Bases of Attitudes Towards Social Groups and Social Policies,”Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30(2), 113–37.
29.
EttensonRichard, WagnerJanet, and GaethGary (1988), “Evaluating the Effect of Country of Origin and the ‘Made in the USA’ Campaign: A Conjoint Approach,”Journal of Retailing, 64(1), 85–100.
30.
FishbeinMartin, and AjzenIcek (1975), Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
31.
FolgerJ., DeanH., and MarshallS. (1984), “Coding Social Interaction,” in Progress in Communication Sciences, Vol. 5, DervinB., and VoightM., eds. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing, 115–61.
32.
Gürhan-CanliZeynep, and MaheswaranDurairaj (2000), “Cultural Variations in Country of Origin Effects,”Journal of Marketing Research, 37(August), 309–317.
33.
HallAmy L., and RistRay C. (1999), “Integrating Multiple Qualitative Research Methods (or Avoiding the Precariousness of a One-Legged Stool),”Psychology & Marketing, 16(4), 291–304.
34.
HartzArthur, WatsonDavid C., and NoyesRussellJr., (2005), “Applied Study of Affinities for Personal Attributes Using an Epidemiological Model,”Social Behavior and Personality, 33(7), 635–50.
35.
IsenAlice M. (1984), “Toward Understanding the Role of Affect in Cognition,” in Handbook of Social Cognition, WyerR.S., and SrullT.K., eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
36.
JaffeElliot D., and NebenzahlIsrael D. (2006), “It's All in the Eyes of the Consumer,” in National Image & Competitive Advantage: The Theory and Practice of Place Branding.Copenhagen: Narayana Press, 79–109.
37.
JohanssonJohny K., DouglasSusan P., and NonakaIkujiro (1985), “Assessing the Impact of Country of Origin on Product Evaluations: A New Methodological Perspective,”Journal of Marketing Research, 22(November), 388–96.
38.
KentDonald P., and BurnightRobert G. (1951), “Group Centrism in Complex Societies,”American Journal of Sociology, 57(3), 256–59.
39.
KleinJill G., EttensonRichard, and MorrisMarlene D. (1998), “The Animosity Model of Foreign Product Purchase: An Empirical Test in the People's Republic of China,”Journal of Marketing, 62(January), 89–100.
40.
KnightGary A., HoldsworthDavid K., and MatherDamien W. (2007), “Country-of-Origin and Choice of Food Imports: An In-Depth Study of European Distribution Channel Gatekeepers,”Journal of International Business Studies, 38(1), 107–125.
41.
KogutBruce, and SinghHarbir (1988), “The Effect of National Culture on the Choice of Entry Mode,”International Business Studies, 19(3), 411–32.
42.
KostermanRick, and FeshbachSeymour (1989), “Towards a Measure of Patriotic and Nationalistic Attitudes,”Political Psychology, 10(2), 257–74.
43.
KrippendorffKlaus (1980), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
44.
KruegerRichard A., and CaseyMary A. (2000), Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research, 3d ed.London: Sage Publications.
45.
KvaleSteiner (1996), Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing.London: Sage Publications.
46.
LarocheMichel, PapadopoulosNicolas, HeslopLouise A., and MouraliMehdi (2005), “The Influence of Country Image Structure on Consumer Evaluations of Foreign Products,”International Marketing Review, 22(1), 96–115.
47.
LarsenJeff T., McGrawPeter A., and CacioppoJohn T. (2001), “Can People Feel Happy and Sad at the Same Time?”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(4), 684–96.
48.
LaurentGilles (2000), “Improving the External Validity of Marketing Models: A Plea for More Qualitative Input,”International Journal of Research in Marketing, 17(2-3), 177–82.
49.
LombardMatthew, Snyder-DuchJennifer, and BrackenCheryl C., (2002), “Content Analysis in Mass Communication: Assessment and Reporting of Intercoder Reliability,”Human Communication Research, 28(4), 587–604.
50.
LutzRichard J. (1981), “The Role of Attitude Theory in Marketing,” in Perspectives in Consumer Behavior, KassarjianH.H., and RobertsonT.S., eds. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 233–50.
51.
MacchietteBart, and RoyAbhijit (1993), “Affinity Marketing: What Is It and How Does It Work?”Journal of Product and Brand Management, 2(1), 55–67.
52.
Marschan-PiekkariRebecca, and WelchCatherine (2004), Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for International Business.Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
53.
MartinIngrid M., and ErogluSevgin (1993), “Measuring a Multidimensional Construct: Country Image,”Journal of Business Research, 28(3), 191–210.
54.
MertensDonna M. (2005), Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology: Integrating Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods.London: Sage Publications.
55.
MertonRobert K. (1995), “Weiterentwicklung der Theorie von Bezugsgruppen und Sozialstruktur,” in Soziologische Theorie und Soziale Struktur, RobertK. Merton, ed. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co, 269–364.
56.
MilesMatthew B., and Michael HubermanA. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis, 2d ed.London: Sage Publications.
57.
MitchellAndrew A., and OlsonJerry C. (1981), “Are Product Attribute Beliefs the Only Mediator of Advertising Effects on Brand Attitude?”Journal of Marketing Research, 18(August), 318–31.
58.
MittelstaedtJohn D., HopkinsChristopher D., RaymondMary A., and DukeCharles R. (2004), “Perceived Differences Among Countries: Understanding Relative Perceptions,”Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 17(1), 7–31.
59.
MorganDavid L. (1988), Focus Groups as Qualitative Research.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
60.
Moss KanterRosabeth, and CornRichard I. (1994), “Do Cultural Differences Make a Business Difference? Contextual Factors Affecting Cross-Cultural Relationship Success,”Journal of Management Development, 13(2), 5–23.
61.
MuellerRene D., BroderickAmanda J., and MackRhonda (2001), “Captious Cues: The Use of Misleading, Deceptive or Ambiguous Country-of-Origin Cues,” paper presented at 30th European Marketing Academy Conference, Bergen (May 8–11).
62.
NebenzahlIsrael D., JaffeEugene D., and UsunierJean-Claude (2003), “Personifying Country of Origin Research,”Management International Review, 43(4), 383–406.
63.
NetemeyerRichard G., BeardenWilliam O., and SharmaSubhash (2003), Scaling Procedures.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
64.
Parkinson, Brian and Peter Totterdell (1999), “Classifying Affect-Regulation Strategies,”Cognitions and Emotions, 13(3), 277–303.
65.
PattonMichael Q. (1990), Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
66.
PecheuxClaude, and DerbaixChristian (1999), “Children and Attitude Toward the Brand: A New Measurement Scale,”Journal of Advertising Research, 39(4), 19–27.
67.
Peng-ErLam, and ChongJ., (2004), “Japan–Taiwan Relations: Between Affinity and Reality,”Asian Affairs, 30(4), 249–67.
68.
PerlmutterHoward V. (1954), “Some Characteristics of the Xenophilic Personality,”Journal of Psychology, 38, 291–300.
69.
PerlmutterHoward V. (1956), “Correlates of Two Types of Xenophilic Orientations,”Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 52(1), 130–35.
70.
PutrevuSanjay, and LordKenneth R. (1994), “Comparative and Noncom-parative Advertising: Attitudinal Effects Under Cognitive and Affective Involvement Conditions,”Journal of Advertising, 23(2), 77–91.
71.
RawwasMohammed Y.A., RajendranK.N., and WuehrerGerhard A. (1996), “The Influences of Worldmindedness and Nationalism on Consumer Evaluation of Domestic and Foreign Products,”International Marketing Review, 13(2), 20–38.
72.
RazovSergei (2004), “To Preserve Heritage of Mutual Trust,”Diplomacy & International Relations, 50(4), 131–34.
73.
RichardsLyn (2004), “Qualitative Software Meets Qualitative Marketing: Are These Tools the Right Tools?” in Applying Qualitative Methods to Marketing Management Research, BuberR., GadnerJ., and RichardsL., eds. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 32–45.
74.
RieflerPetra, and DiamantopoulosAdamantios (2007), “Consumer Animosity: A Literature Review and a Reconsideration of Its Measurement,”International Marketing Review, 24(1), 87–119.
75.
RozmanGilbert (2002), “Japan and Korea: Should the U.S. Be Worried About Their New Spat in 2001?”The Pacific Review, 15(1), 1–28.
76.
RuggGordon, and McGeorgePeter (2005), “The Sorting Techniques: A Tutorial Paper on Card Sorts, Picture Sorts and Item Sorts,”Expert Systems, 22(3), 94–107.
77.
ShankarmaheshMahesh N. (2006), “Consumer Ethnocentrism: An Integrative Review of Its Antecedents and Consequences,”International Marketing Review, 23(2), 146–71.
78.
ShenkarOded (2001), “Cultural Distance Revisited: Towards a More Rigorous Conceptualization and Measurement of Cultural Differences,”Journal of International Business Studies, 32(3), 519–35.
79.
ShimpTerence A., and SharmaSubhash (1987), “Consumer Ethnocentrism: Construction and Validation of the CETSCALE,”Journal of Marketing Research, 24(August), 280–89.
80.
SokalRobert R., and James RohlfF. (1962), “The Comparison of Dendrograms by Objective Methods,”Taxon, 11(2), 33–40.
81.
SousaCarlos M.P., and BradleyFrank (2006), “Cultural Distance and Psychic Distance: Two Peas in a Pod?”Journal of International Marketing, 14(1), 49–70.
82.
SpectorPaul E. (1992), Summated Rating Scale Construction: An Introduction.Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
83.
SrnkaKatharina, and KoeszegiSabine (2007), “From Words to Numbers: How to Transform Qualitative Data into Meaningful Quantitative Results,”Schmalenbach Business Review, 59, 29–57.
84.
StokesDavid, and BerginRichard (2006), “Methodology or ‘Methodolatry'? An Evaluation of Focus Groups and Depth Interviews,”Qualitative Market Research, 9(1), 26–37.
85.
SwiftJonathan S. (1999), “Cultural Closeness as a Facet of Cultural Affinity: A Contribution to the Theory of Psychic Distance,”International Marketing Review, 16(3), 182–201.
86.
SwiftJonathan S. (2002), “Foreign Language Competence and Cultural Affinity: A Study of U.K. Executives in Foreign Markets,”Cross Cultural Management, 9(2), 4–24.
87.
TajfelHenri (1982), “Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations,”Annual Reviews in Psychology, 33(January), 1–39.
88.
TrompenaarsFons, and TurnerCharles Hampden (1996), Riding the Waves of Culture.London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.
89.
Van der WerffTerry J. (2000), “Scenario-Based Decision-Making Technique,”Global Future Report, (accessed May 5, 2007), [available at www.globalfuture.com/scenario1.htm].
VerleghPeeter W.J. (2007), “Home Country Bias in Product Evaluation: The Complementary Roles of Economic and Socio-Psychological Motives,”Journal of International Business Studies, 38(3), 361–73.
93.
WatsonDavid, ClarkLee A., and TellegenAuke (1988), “Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–70.
94.
WeberRon (2004), “The Rhetoric of Positivism Versus Interpretivism: A Personal View,”MIS Quarterly, 38(1), iii–xii.
95.
WilsonAlan (2003), Marketing Research: An Integrated Approach.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
96.
WooKa-Shing, FockHenry K.Y., and HuiMichael K.M. (2006), “An Analysis of Endorsement Effects in Affinity Marketing: The Case for Affinity Credit Cards,”Journal of Advertising, 35(3), 103–114.
