Ontology Design Patterns (ODPs) have become an established and recognised practice for
guaranteeing good quality ontology engineering. There are several ODP repositories where
ODPs are shared as well as ontology design methodologies recommending their reuse.
Performing rigorous testing is recommended as well for supporting ontology maintenance and
validating the resulting resource against its motivating requirements. Nevertheless, it is
less than straightforward to find guidelines on how to apply such methodologies for
developing domain-specific knowledge graphs. ArCo is the knowledge graph of Italian
Cultural Heritage and has been developed by using eXtreme Design (XD), an ODP- and
test-driven methodology. During its development, XD has been adapted to the need of the CH
domain e.g. gathering requirements from an open, diverse community of consumers, a new ODP
has been defined and many have been specialised to address specific CH requirements. This
paper presents ArCo and describes how to apply XD to the development and
validation of a CH knowledge graph, also detailing the (intellectual) process implemented
for matching the encountered modelling problems to ODPs. Relevant contributions also
include a novel web tool for supporting unit-testing of knowledge graphs, a rigorous
evaluation of ArCo, and a discussion of methodological lessons learned during ArCo’s
development.
L.Asprino, W.Beek, P.Ciancarini, F.van
Harmelen and V.Presutti,
Observing LOD using Equivalent Set Graphs: It is mostly flat and sparsely
linked, in: The Semantic Web – ISWC 2019, C.Ghidini, O.Hartig, M.Maleshkova, V.Svátek, I.F.Cruz, A.Hogan, J.Song, M.Lefrançois and
F.Gandon, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 11778,
Springer, Cham,
2019, pp. 57–74. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30793-6_4.
2.
C.Bizer, T.Heath and T.Berners-Lee,
Linked data – the story so far, International
Journal of Semantic Web Information Systems5(3) (2009),
1–22. doi:10.4018/jswis.2009081901.
3.
E.Blomqvist,
A.Gangemi and
V.Presutti,
Experiments on pattern-based ontology design, in:
K-CAP ’09: Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Knowledge
Capture, Y.Gil and N.F.Noy, eds,
ACM, New York, NY, USA,
2009. doi:10.1145/1597735.1597743.
4.
E.Blomqvist,
K.Hammar and
V.Presutti,
Engineering ontologies with patterns – the eXtreme design
methodology, in: Ontology Engineering with Ontology Design
Patterns – Foundations and Applications, P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti, eds,
Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 25,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2016. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-676-7-23.
E.Blomqvist,
V.Presutti, E.Daga
and A.Gangemi,
Experimenting with eXtreme design, in: Knowledge
Engineering and Management by the Masses. EKAW 2010, P.Cimiano and H.S.Pinto, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 6317,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2010,
pp. 120–134. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-16438-5_9.
7.
E.Blomqvist,
A.S.Sepour and
V.Presutti,
Ontology testing – methodology and tool, in:
Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management, EKAW 2012, A.ten
Teije, J.Völker, S.Handschuh, H.Stuckenschmidt,
M.d’Aquin, A.Nikolov, N.Aussenac-Gilles and
N.Hernandez, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 7603,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2012,
pp. 216–226. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33876-2_20.
8.
V.A.Carriero,
M.Daquino, A.Gangemi, A.G.Nuzzolese,
S.Peroni, V.Presutti and
F.Tomasi,
The landscape of ontology reuse approaches, in:
Applications and Practices in Ontology Design, Extraction, and
Reasoning, G.Cota, M.Daquino and G.L.Pozzato, eds,
Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 49,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2020, pp. 21–38. doi:10.3233/SSW200033.
9.
V.A.Carriero,
A.Gangemi, M.L.Mancinelli,
L.Marinucci,
A.G.Nuzzolese,
V.Presutti and
C.Veninata,
ArCo: The Italian cultural heritage knowledge graph, in:
The Semantic Web – ISWC 2019, C.Ghidini, O.Hartig, M.Maleshkova, V.Svátek, I.F.Cruz, A.Hogan, J.Song, M.Lefrançois and
F.Gandon, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 11779,
Springer, Cham,
2019, pp. 36–52. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30796-7_3.
10.
V.A.Carriero,
A.Gangemi, A.G.Nuzzolese and
V.Presutti,
An ontology design pattern for representing recurrent
events, in: Proceedings of the 10th Workshop on Ontology Design
and Patterns (WOP 2019) Co-Located with the 18th International Semantic Web Conference
(ISWC 2019), K.Janowicz, A.A.Krisnadhi,
M.P.Villalón,
K.Hammar and
C.Shimizu, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 2459,
CEUR-WS.org, 2019.
11.
V.A.Carriero,
F.Mariani, A.G.Nuzzolese,
V.Pasqual and
V.Presutti,
Agile knowledge graph testing with TESTaLOD, in:
Proceedings of the ISWC 2019 Satellite Tracks (Posters & Demonstrations,
Industry, and Outrageous Ideas) Co-Located with 18th International Semantic Web
Conference (ISWC 2019), M.C.Suárez-Figueroa,
G.Cheng, A.L.Gentile, C.Guéret, C.M.Keet and A.Bernstein, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 2456,
CEUR-WS.org, 2019,
pp. 221–224.
12.
R.Casati and
A.Varzi, Fifty
Years of Events: An Annotated Bibliography 1947 to 1997,
Philosophy Documentation Center, Bowling
Green, OH, 1997.
13.
M.d’Aquin, A.Schlicht, H.Stuckenschmidt and
M.Sabou,
Criteria and evaluation for ontology modularization
techniques, in: Modular Ontologies: Concepts, Theories and
Techniques for Knowledge Modularization, H.Stuckenschmidt,
C.Parent and
S.Spaccapietra, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 5445,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 67–89.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01907-4_4.
14.
M.Daquino, F.Mambelli, S.Peroni, F.Tomasi and F.Vitali,
Enhancing semantic expressivity in the cultural heritage domain: Exposing
the zeri photo archive as linked open data, Journal on Computing
and Cultural Heritage JOCCH10(4) (2017),
1–21. doi:10.1145/3051487.
15.
D.Davidson,
The logical form of action sentences, in: The
Logic of Decision and Action, N.Rescher, ed.,
University of Pittsburgh Press,
Pittsburgh, 1967.
16.
V.de Boer, J.Wielemaker, J.van
Gent, M.Oosterbroek,
M.Hildebrand,
A.Isaac, J.van
Ossenbruggen and G.Schreiber,
Amsterdam Museum Linked Open Data, Semantic Web4(3) (2013),
237–243. doi:10.3233/SW-2012-0074.
17.
C.Dijkshoorn,
L.Aroyo, J.van
Ossenbruggen and G.Schreiber,
Modeling cultural heritage data for online publication,
Applied Ontology13(4) (2018),
255–271. doi:10.3233/AO-180201.
18.
C.Dijkshoorn,
L.Jongma, L.Aroyo, J.van
Ossenbruggen, G.Schreiber,
W.ter
Weele and J.Wielemaker,
The Rijksmuseum collection as linked data,
Semantic Web9(2) (2018),
221–230. doi:10.3233/SW-170257.
19.
M.Doerr,
The CIDOC conceptual reference module: An ontological approach to
semantic interoperability of metadata, AI Magazine24(3) (2003),
75–92. doi:10.1609/aimag.v24i3.1720.
20.
M.Dragoni, E.Cabrio, S.Tonelli and S.Villata,
Enriching a small artwork collection through semantic
linking, in: The Semantic Web. Latest Advances and New Domains.
ESWC 2016, H.Sack, E.Blomqvist, M.d’Aquin, C.Ghidini, S.P.Ponzetto and
C.Lange, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 9678,
Springer, Cham,
2016, pp. 724–740. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-34129-3_44.
21.
C.J.Fillmore,
Frame semantics and the nature of language,
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences280(1) (1976),
20–32. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25467.x.
22.
A.Gangemi,
Ontology design patterns for semantic web content, in:
The Semantic Web – ISWC 2005, Y.Gil, E.Motta, V.R.Benjamins and
M.A.Musen, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 3729,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2005,
pp. 262–276. doi:10.1007/11574620_21.
23.
A.Gangemi,
Norms and plans as unification criteria for social
collectives, Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems17(1) (2008),
70–112. doi:10.1007/s10458-008-9038-9.
24.
A.Gangemi,
Closing the loop between knowledge patterns in cognition and the semantic
web, Semantic Web11(1) (2020),
139–151. doi:10.3233/SW-190383.
25.
A.Gangemi, M.Alam, L.Asprino, V.Presutti and
D.R.Recupero,
Framester: A wide coverage linguistic linked data hub,
in: Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management. EKAW 2016,
Springer, Cham,
2016, pp. 239–254. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49004-5_16.
26.
A.Gangemi, C.Catenacci and
M.Battaglia,
Inflammation ontology design pattern: An exercise in building a core
biomedical ontology with descriptions and situations, in:
Ontologies in Medicine, D.M.Pisanelli, ed.,
Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, IOS
Press, Amsterdam,
2004.
27.
A.Gangemi, C.Catenacci, M.Ciaramita and
J.Lehmann,
Modelling ontology evaluation and validation, in:
The Semantic Web: Research and Applications. ESWC 2006, Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 4011,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2006,
pp. 140–154. doi:10.1007/11762256_13.
28.
A.Gangemi, N.Guarino, C.Masolo and A.Oltramari,
Sweetening WORDNET with DOLCE, AI
Magazine24(3) (2003),
13–24. doi:10.1609/aimag.v24i3.1715.
29.
A.Gangemi and
S.Peroni,
The information realization pattern, in: Ontology
Engineering with Ontology Design Patterns – Foundations and Applications,
P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti, eds,
Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 25,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2016, pp. 299–312. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-676-7-299.
30.
A.Gangemi and
V.Presutti,
Ontology design patterns, in: Handbook on
Ontologies, S.Staab and R.Studer, eds,
International Handbooks on Information Systems,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2009,
pp. 221–243. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92673-3_10.
31.
A.Gangemi and
V.Presutti,
Multi-layered n-ary patterns, in: Ontology
Engineering with Ontology Design Patterns – Foundations and Applications,
P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti, eds,
Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 25,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2016, pp. 105–131. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-676-7-105.
32.
A.Gangemi, M.T.Sagri and D.Tiscornia,
A constructive framework for legal ontologies, in:
Law and the Semantic Web, LNCS,
Vol. 3369, Springer,
Berlin, Heidelberg, 2005,
pp. 97–124. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-32253-5_7.
33.
D.Gentner and
L.A.Smith,
Analogical learning and reasoning, in: The Oxford
Handbook of Cognitive Psychology, Oxford University
Press, New York, 2013,
pp. 668–681. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376746.013.0042.
34.
M.Gruninger and
M.S.Fox,
The role of competency questions in enterprise
engineering, in: Benchmarking – Theory and Practice. IFIP
Advances in Information and Communication Technology,
Springer, Boston, MA,
1994, pp. 83–95.
35.
N.Guarino and
C.Welty, A
formal ontology of properties, in: International Conference on
Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2000,
pp. 97–112.
36.
P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti (eds),
Ontology Engineering with Ontology Design Patterns – Foundations and
Applications, Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 25,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2016.
37.
P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti,
Towards a simple but useful ontology design pattern representation
language, in: Proceedings of the 8th Workshop on Ontology Design
and Patterns (WOP 2017) Co-Located with the 16th International Semantic Web Conference
(ISWC 2017), CEUR Workshop Proceedings,
Vol. 2043, CEUR-WS.org,
2017.
38.
P.Hitzler and
A.Krisnadhi, A tutorial
on modular ontology modeling with ontology design patterns: The cooking recipes ontology,
2018, CoRR abs/1808.08433.
39.
E.Hyvönen,
Semantic portals for cultural heritage, in:
Handbook on Ontologies, S.Staab and R.Studer, eds,
International Handbooks on Information Systems,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2009,
pp. 757–778. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92673-3_34.
40.
E.Hyvönen, E.Mäkelä, M.Salminen, A.Valo, K.Viljanen, S.Saarela, M.Junnila and S.Kettula,
MuseumFinland – Finnish museums on the semantic web,
Web Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web3(2–3) (2005),
224–241. doi:10.1016/j.websem.2005.05.008.
41.
A.Isaac and B.Haslhofer,
Europeana linked open data – data.europeana.eu,
Semantic Web4(3) (2013),
291–297. doi:10.3233/SW-120092.
42.
M.Katsumi and
M.Grüninger,
What is ontology reuse? in: Formal Ontology in
Information Systems – Proceedings of the 9th International Conference, FOIS
2016, R.Ferrario and
W.Kuhn, eds,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
2016, pp. 9–22.
43.
M.T.Khan and
E.Blomqvist,
Ontology design pattern detection – initial method and usage
scenarios, in: SEMAPRO 2010, the Fourth International Conference
on Advances in Semantic Processing, M.Popescu and
D.L.Stewart, eds,
IARIA, Wilmington, DE,
2010, pp. 19–24. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33876-2.
44.
Z.C.Khan,
Evaluation metrics in ontology modules, in:
Proceedings of the 29th International Workshop on Description Logics,
M.Lenzerini and
R.Peñaloza, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 1577,
CEUR-WS.org, 2016.
45.
A.Ławrynowicz,
J.Potoniec, M.Robaczyk and
T.Tudorache,
Discovery of emerging design patterns in ontologies using tree
mining, Semantic Web9(4) (2018),
517–544. doi:10.3233/SW-170280.
46.
G.Lodi, L.Asprino, A.G.Nuzzolese,
V.Presutti, A.Gangemi, D.R.Recupero, C.Veninata and
A.Orsini,
Semantic web for cultural heritage valorisation, in:
Data Analytics in Digital Humanities, S.Hai-Jew, ed.,
Springer, Cham,
2017, pp. 3–37. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54499-1_1.
47.
C.Masolo, L.Vieu, E.Bottazzi, C.Catenacci, R.Ferrario, A.Gangemi and N.Guarino,
Social roles and their descriptions, in:
Proceedings of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR),
C.Welty, D.Dubois and M.A.Williams, eds,
AAAI Press, Palo Alto,
CA, 2004,
pp. 267–277.
48.
D.Oberle, S.Lamparter, S.Grimm, D.Vrandecic, S.Staab and A.Gangemi,
Towards ontologies for formalizing modularization and communication in
large software systems, Journal of Applied Ontology1(2) (2006),
163–202.
49.
A.M.Orme, H.Yao
and L.Etzkorn,
Coupling metrics for ontology-based systems, IEEE
Software23(2) (2006),
102–108. doi:10.1109/MS.2006.46.
50.
C.Parent and
S.Spaccapietra,
An overview of modularity, in: Modular
Ontologies: Concepts, Theories and Techniques for Knowledge Modularization,
H.Stuckenschmidt,
C.Parent and
S.Spaccapietra, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 5445,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 5–23.
doi:10.1007/978-3-642-01907-4_2.
51.
H.Paulheim and
A.Gangemi,
Serving DBpedia with DOLCE – more than just adding a cherry on
top, in: The Semantic Web – ISWC 2015. ISWC 2015, Part
I, Springer,
Cham, 2015,
pp. 180–196. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-25007-6_11.
52.
V.Presutti, E.Daga, A.Gangemi and E.Blomqvist,
eXtreme design with content ontology design patterns, in:
Proceedings of the Workshop on Ontology Patterns (WOP 2009), Collocated with the
8th International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC-2009), E.Blomqvist, K.Sandkuhl, F.Scharffe and
V.Svátek, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 516,
CEUR-WS.org, 2009.
53.
V.Presutti and
A.Gangemi,
Dolce+D&S Ultralite and its main ontology design
patterns, in: Ontology Engineering with Ontology Design Patterns
– Foundations and Applications, P.Hitzler, A.Gangemi, K.Janowicz, A.Krisnadhi and
V.Presutti, eds,
Studies on the Semantic Web, Vol. 25,
IOS Press, 2016,
pp. 81–103. doi:10.3233/978-1-61499-676-7-81.
54.
V.Presutti, G.Lodi, A.G.Nuzzolese,
A.Gangemi, S.Peroni and L.Asprino,
The role of ontology design patterns in linked data
projects, in: Conceptual Modeling. ER 2016,
I.Comyn-Wattiau,
K.Tanaka, I.Song, S.Yamamoto and
M.Saeki, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 9974,
Springer, Cham,
2016, pp. 113–121. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46397-1_9.
55.
J.Pustejovski,
The Generative Lexicon, Language, Speech, and Communication,
The MIT Press, Cambridge,
MA, 1995. doi:10.2307/415891.
56.
S.Rose, D.Engel, N.Cramer and W.Cowley,
Automatic keyword extraction from individual documents,
in: Text Mining. Applications and Theory, M.W.Berry and J.Kogan, eds,
John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.,
Hoboken, 2010,
pp. 1–20.
57.
A.Scherp, T.Franz, C.Saathoff and
S.Staab,
F – a model of events based on the foundational ontology dolce+DnS
ultralight, in: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
on Knowledge Capture (K-CAP 2009), Y.Gil and N.F.Noy, eds,
ACM, New York, NY, USA,
2009, pp. 137–144. doi:10.1145/1597735.1597760.
58.
A.Schlicht and
H.Stuckenschmidt,
Towards structural criteria for ontology modularization,
in: Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Modular Ontologies, WoMO’06,
Co-Located with the International Semantic Web Conference, ISWC’06,
P.Haase, V.G.Honavar, O.Kutz, Y.Sure
and A.Tamilin, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 232,
CEUR-WS.org, 2006.
59.
C.Shimizu, K.Hammar and P.Hitzler,
Modular graphical ontology engineering evaluated, in:
The Semantic Web. ESWC 2020, A.Harth, S.Kirrane, A.N.Ngomo, H.Paulheim, A.Rula, A.L.Gentile, P.Haase and M.Cochez, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 12123,
Springer, Cham,
2020, pp. 20–35. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49461-2_2.
60.
J.Shore and S.Warden, The Art
of Agile Development, O’Reilly Media, Inc.,
Sebastopol, California,
2007.
61.
H.Stuckenschmidt and
M.C.A.Klein,
Reasoning and change management in modular ontologies,
Data & Knowledge Engineering63(2) (2007),
200–223. doi:10.1016/j.datak.2007.02.001.
62.
P.A.Szekely,
C.A.Knoblock,
F.Yang, X.Zhu,
E.E.Fink, R.Allen and G.Goodlander,
Connecting the Smithsonian American art museum to the linked data
cloud, in: The Semantic Web: Semantics and Big Data. ESWC
2013, P.Cimiano, Ó.Corcho, V.Presutti, L.Hollink and S.Rudolph, eds,
Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 7882,
Springer, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 2013,
pp. 593–607. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-38288-8_40.
63.
S.Tartir, I.B.Arpinar and
A.P.Sheth,
Ontological evaluation and validation, in: Theory
and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications,
Springer, Dordrecht,
2010, pp. 115–130. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8847-5_5.
64.
M.Uschold, M.Healy, K.Williamson, P.Clark and S.Woods,
Ontology reuse and application, in: Formal
Ontology in Information Systems – Proceedings of the 1st International Conference, FOIS
1998, Vol. 179, N.Guarino, ed.,
IOS Press, Amsterdam,
1998, pp. 179–192.
65.
J.Volz, C.Bizer, M.Gaedke and G.Kobilarov,
Silk – a link discovery framework for the web of data,
in: Proceedings of the WWW2009 Workshop on Linked Data on the Web,
C.Bizer, T.Heath, T.Berners-Lee and
K.Idehen, eds,
CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 538,
CEUR-WS.org, 2009.
66.
H.Yao, A.M.Orme and L.Etzkorn,
Cohesion metrics for ontology design and application,
Journal of Computer Science1(1) (2005),
107–113. doi:10.3844/jcssp.2005.107.113.
