Abstract
Keywords
Introduction: Background and Purpose
A disulfide bond, also known as disulfide bridge or SS-bond, plays an important role in the folding process, stability, and function of the protein. The oxidation of the thiol group (R–SH) of the cysteines is required for the formation of a covalent bond between cysteines, known as disulfide bond (S–S). 1 In this process, two atoms of hydrogen are released. These bonds are usually found in proteins that are secreted to the extracellular medium.
The prediction of disulfide bonds connectivity can help the protein structure prediction (PSP) problem that is an important challenge in structural bioinformatics. This issue can be considered as one of the subproblems to tackle the problem of PSP. 2 The tertiary structure of a protein is the result of the formation of disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic effect, and other interactions between the side chains of the amino acids. Disulfide bonds can be formed between cysteine residues in the same chain (intrabonded), separated by many amino acids or belong to different polypeptide chains of the protein (interbonding). Disulfide bonds stabilize protein native structures by lowering global-free energy and constraining the unfolded conformation.
Determining the disulfide bondings in an experimental way, such as X-ray crystallography, requires time-consuming procedures and expensive equipments. On the other hand, several computational approaches have been developed for the disulfide bond prediction problem, providing a fast and effective way to understand biological molecules. This problem can be divided into two different steps: disulfide bonding state prediction and disulfide connectivity prediction (DCP). 3 The aim of the methods of the first group is to classify cysteines according to their molecular state (bonded to another cysteine of the chain or to a free cysteine). Thus, we are addressing a binary classification problem, where the class labels are the states of the cysteines (reduced or oxidized). Predicting the disulfide state of each cysteine is a step toward the location of disulfide bridges in proteins. DCP tries to elucidate the different pairs of cysteines that are bonded in a protein sequence. 4 Currently, available predictors are mainly based on neural network (NN) approaches and support vector machines (SVMs) as well as other predictive methods.
This article presents relevant and ultimate DCP methods based on soft computing techniques. Section 2 introduces some basic concepts of the DCP problem. Section 3 shows the most relevant techniques and are briefly described. Finally, some conclusions are summarized.
Preliminary Concepts
In order to represent the protein disulfide bondings, we can use two different types of encoding: pairwise and pattern-wise models, depending on the extraction of local information or global information of the protein training data. Some of these information features used for the encoding are evolutionary information, physicochemical properties of amino acids, prediction of secondary structures (SSs), cysteine separation distance, relative order of cysteines, protein length, and protein molecular weight.
Pairwise vs. pattern-wise model
Pairwise model uses the local information of the disulfide bond. 5 Generally, this encoding consists of two windows of residues centered around the two target cysteines. Local properties are based on the local environment of the cysteine residue, that is, composition of residues and physicochemical properties of the residues in the local environment of the target cysteine. On the other hand, pattern-wise model analyzes the global information of the whole protein for the encoding. Specifically, this encoding contains information such as the length of the protein, the position of the cysteines in the chain, the composition of amino acids, and the separation between cysteines.
Input data features
Input data are encoded according to several features based on the global and local properties of the cysteines. Evolutionary information, physicochemical properties, SS prediction, distance between cysteines, and protein length or protein molecular weight are some of the most used features in the literature.
Evolutionary information
Sequence alignment is a standard technique in bioinformatics for visualizing the relationships between residues in a collection of evolutionary or structurally related proteins. Existing DCP algorithms in the literature have used multiple sequence alignment, position-specific scoring matrices (PSSMs)6,7 and correlated mutations 4 as input encoding.
The tendency of residue positions in proteins to mutate coordinately is called correlated mutation. For each cysteine residue, its frequency of being correlatively mutated with respect to all other cysteine residues present in the same chain is calculated. This is computed by counting the number of times the two cysteine residues are either present or absent together and dividing it by the total number of counts.
On the other hand, PSSMs are also obtained from sequence alignments. PSSMs determine the substitution scores between the amino acids according to their positions in the alignment. Each cell of the matrix is calculated as the log2 of the observed substitution frequency at a given position divided by the expected substitution frequency at that position. Thus, a positive score (ratio > 1) indicates that the observed frequency exceeds the expected frequency, suggesting that this substitution is surprisingly favored. A negative score (ratio < 1) indicates the opposite: the observed substitution frequency is lower than the expected frequency, suggesting that the substitution is not favored.
Physicochemical properties
The most direct information we can extract from the primary sequence of a protein are physicochemical characteristics of its residues. With this information, we can generate representations of, for example, how the hydrophobicity varies along the sequence of the protein and obtain information about hydrophobic areas, which may help the prediction of structural characteristics. Properties used in the literature are hydrophobicity, polarity, volume of residues, graph shape index, and isoelectric point, among others. Shilton et al. 8 and Song et al. 9 include amino acid properties as input data.
Secondary structures
SS prediction consists of predicting the location of α-helices and
Cysteine separation distance
The separation distance between two cysteines is defined as |
Protein length and protein molecular weight
Protein length indicates the number of amino acids of each sequence. Molecular weight of a protein is the mass of this molecule. It can be calculated as the sum of the individual isotopic masses of all the atoms in the molecule. These features correspond to the representation of global information of a protein sequence and are used in several methods. 10
Databases
The benchmark datasets used in the area of DCP are extracted from Swiss-Prot 39 (SP39). 11 SP39 includes 726 proteins of the Swiss-Prot database release no. 39, which include from two to five cysteine bonds. This dataset was experimentally verified and includes intrachain disulfide bridge annotations. The sequence homology between the proteins of this dataset is ≤30%. SP43 and SP56 are also employed in several proposals. SPX, an extended dataset of SP39 and SP41, is also used in the literature.
Other dataset used is called PDBCYS introduced by Savojardo et al. 10 This dataset was extracted from PDB (released May 2010) and contains 1797 Eukaryotic protein structures with resolution <2.5 with at least two cysteine residues and global pairwise sequence similarity <25%. PDBCYS includes 7619 free and 3194 bonded cysteines. This dataset contains a high number of proteins, and its sequence similarity is very low. These characteristics make it a good candidate for the evaluation of a method to be used as training and test dataset.
Performance metrics
The quality measures used to evaluate the accuracy of the connectivity patterns prediction methods are mainly two. 10
Methods
Support vector machines
SVMs are based on the transformation of the input space into a feature space of higher dimensionality. SVM techniques then build a hyperplane, or a set of hyperplanes, in this space trying to maximize the margin between each pair of classes. The function that performs the transformation of the space is called kernel function. SVMs are used as a machine learning tool to predict tertiary structure from the primary sequence. On the other hand, support vector regression (SVR) machine is a regression model based on SVM.
The four following methods employ information about the cysteine pairs (local information) and the whole sequence protein (global information) indistinctly. Savojardo et al. 4 incorporate evolutionary information derived from correlated mutations as feature encoding for a SVR machine. Correlated mutations are represented in the form of corrected mutual information (MIp) and inverse of covariance matrix (iCOV). SVR was trained using local and global information. As encoding features, they employ two PSSM-based windows centered on the pair of cysteines, the relative order of the cysteines in the sequences, the separation distance between each pair of cysteines, and the cited correlated mutation information. The predictions of the SVR constitute the weights of the edges of the graph formed by all possible cysteine pairs of the sequence. The Edmond–Gabow algorithm 12 is used to solve maximum weighted matching problem on this graph and obtain the most probable disulfide pattern. A 20-fold cross-validation is used to evaluate the SVR. Savojardo et al. 10 perform a two step-based algorithm, which includes bond state prediction and connectivity pattern prediction. They include a protein subcellular localization to improve the performance of the disulfide bond state predictor method. This model contains local and global information for the connectivity pattern prediction. Normalized protein length, protein molecular weight, and amino acid composition are the global features. Two PSSM windows of length 13, relative order cysteines, and the cysteine separation distances constitute the local features for the training of the SVR. The method described by Liu and Chen 13 combines global and local information. Cysteine separation profile (CSP) and evolutionary information profiles are encoded as input data for the SVM. CSP represents the distribution of the cysteines in the whole sequence (global information). SVM infers the potential of connectivity between each pair of cysteines with prior information of the bonding states. Later, Gabow's algorithm finds the disulfide connectivity pattern. Finally, Chen et al. 5 propose a two-level framework to predict the disulfide connectivity. This method combines two encoding schemes, pairwise and pattern-wise models. The bonding probabilities are the outputs of the first level, and this information is used as input data in the second level. As local information, the algorithm uses DOC and evolutionary profiles. On the other hand, as global information of the protein, the method employs the confidence scores of the pairwise probabilities, CSP, the cysteine ordering, and the protein length. This proposal used SVMs, but artificial neural networks (ANNs) can also be used.
Several methods have combined a SVM with a maximum weight perfect matching algorithm to predict the disulfide connectivity patterns. For instance, Lin and Tseng
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introduce a method, called disulfide bonding connectivity pattern prediction web server (DBCP), based on SVM to predict the probabilities of the bonding pairs and the Edmond–Gabow algorithm to solve the maximum weight perfect matching problem. In this work, the atom coordinates of the
Physicochemical properties and prediction of protein SS are used as input features of the SVM approaches in the next three methods. The method proposed by Song et al. 9 adopts an SVR, method based on multiple sequence feature vectors and SS predictions as input features. Once the probabilities are obtained by the algorithm, a ranking of them is provided, determining the predicted disulfide bridges. The cited multiple sequence feature vector is composed of cysteine–cysteine coupling, amino acid compositions, cysteine separation distance, cysteine ordering, protein molecular weight, and protein sequence length. Finally, predicted secondary structure (PSS), is added to the encoding. Lin and Tseng 7 propose a method based on four features: PSSM, PSS, normalized bond lengths, and amino acid physicochemical properties indices. A SVM combined with a maximum weight perfect matching algorithm predict the disulfide connectivity patterns. To adjust the parameters of the SVM and the window sizes of the features, an evolutionary algorithm called multiple trajectory search is employed during the SVM training phase. In a previous work, 19 the authors introduced a normalized PD vector as input feature information for the SVM. This vector includes the Euclidean distance between all the oxidized cysteines of the training proteins. Finally, Shilton et al. 8 elaborate an encoding scheme based on physicochemical properties and statistical features. These properties are hydrophobicity and polarity according to the scales described by Kyte and Doolitle 21 and Grantham, 22 respectively. As statistical feature, the probability of occurrence in SS based on Chou–Fassman scale is used. The algorithm uses a priori knowledge on their bonding states.
Lu et al. 17 develop a method that includes bonding state and connectivity pattern prediction using SVM. A genetic algorithm (GA) was implemented to optimize the feature selection (FS) and to adjust the parameters of the SVM. Each individual of the population of the GA is composed of three feature vectors, one to represent the different combination of features and the other two for the parameters of the SVM. A connectivity matrix, which includes the predicted cysteine states, is used as input encoding for the SVM to infer the disulfide connectivity patterns.
The proposal described by Chen and Hwang 16 implements an algorithm based on SVM. Local sequence environments with evolutionary information of cysteine pairs, cysteine sequences separation, and amino acid content constitute the biological features of the three input vectors of the SVM. This work determines the existence of a clear relationship between the disulfide patterns and cysteine sequence separations.
Zhu et al. 18 present a SVR method combined with FS to improve the performance and avoid the high-dimensional feature space. The following FS methods were employed: variance score, Laplacian score, and the Fisher score. They conclude that local features dominate the formation and the prediction of disulfide bridges.
The method proposed by Becker et al. 6 employs three different classification algorithms for the prediction of disulfide bonding probabilities: k-nearest neighbors, SVMs, and extremely randomized trees. Therefore, they propose a feature function selection, which determines a subset of feature functions and the best setting for associated window sizes. Finally, the best performance of the algorithm is obtained with the use of PSSM together with the CSP.
As limitations of SVM-SVR methods, we can argue that the kernel models overfit the model selection criterion, the selection of the optimal kernel function parameters is difficult, and for large-scale tasks, the algorithmic complexity and memory requirements are remarkable.
A summary of SVM-based methods for disulfide bond prediction is shown in Table 1. The first column refers to the name of the method in the literature. The second column shows the reference of the work. Third and fourth columns represent the accuracy values of
A real comparison of the presented methods is quite difficult. However, we have focused on those methods tested using the same recurrent data set (SP39). We can highlight the method presented by Lin et al.
19
, which achieves a high level of accuracy (
Summary of SVM-based methods for disulfide connectivity pattern prediction in chronological order.
Neural networks
An ANN is a computing system of interconnected elements, which process information by their dynamic state response to external inputs. The weights of the connections can be tuned based on the experience, making ANNs adaptive to inputs and capable of learning. ANN can be trained to recognize the disulfide connectivity patterns.
PSIPRED 20 and PSI-BLAST 23 are employed by Ferre and Clote 24 for the encoding scheme of a diresidue NN. The method consists of two phases, one for the bonding state predictor and the other for the connectivity predictor. Diresidue PSSMs are also used as evolutionary information. ANN provides a likelihood of forming a disulfide bond for each cysteine pair. Finally, a Rothberg's implementation of the Gabow's algorithm (http://elib.zib.de/ppub/Packages/mathprog/matching/weighted) is applied to determine the disulfide connectivity. Other methods are based on a two-dimensional recursive neural network (2D-RNN). In particular, the method proposed by Cheng et al. 3 presents an algorithm based on a 2D-RNN and the prediction of SS and solvent accessibility. The outputs of the RNN are the probabilities of existence of a cysteine bridge. This method can be applied when the information of the bonding states is known or unknown and is useful for chains with more than five bonds in the sequence. The majority of the algorithms only predict sequences with two to five cysteine bonds. The method showed by Vullo and Frasconi 25 uses evolutionary information in the form of multiple alignment profiles as input data of a 2D-RNN. The disulfide patterns are presented like graphs. The candidate graphs are compared to the correct graphs and are scored according to a similarity metric. This method, called DISULFIND, was implemented as a prediction server and described by Ceroni et al. 26 Finally, Yaseen and Li 27 perform an NN encoding based on PSSM and context-based statistics using two amino acid windows of 15 residues. They calculate the mean-force potentials as statistics to estimate the favorability of cysteine contacts. The cysteine bonding state is also predicted by this method, called Dinosolve.
Martelli et al. 28 present a hybrid system based on hidden neural networks that combine ANNs and hidden Markov models for the prediction of bonding states. A window of 27 residues centered on the cysteine residue is used as input feature.
NNs provide a high degree of flexibility. Besides encoded input vectors of pair of amino acids, we may include neurons with additional information, for example, sequence length or evolutionary information. On the other hand, NNs have certain limitations, for example, constraints on the encoding of input data, the use of appropriate parameters of the ANN, and overfitting. Comparing NNs and SVMs, we can state that ANNs follow a heuristic path, while SVMs are theoretically founded. ANNs can find multiple local minima solutions, while SVM classifiers converge in global and unique solutions. On the other hand, ANNs consume less storage and computational resources than SVMs.
A summary of NN methods for disulfide bond prediction is shown in Table 2. According to the results, we can assume that the different benchmarks make difficult a real comparison. However, Dinosolve clearly achieves the best results. This is due to the use of PSSM and statistics that calculates the probabilities of each disulfide bond connectivity as input features of the ANN to enhance the predictions. We can conclude that statistics and evolutionary information provide a differentiating factor for the DCPs.
Summary of ANN-based methods for disulfide connectivity pattern prediction in chronological order.
Other predictive methods
In addition to the aforementioned approaches, there are other important approaches to tackle the disulfide connectivity problem, such as nearest neighbor and Monte Carlo simulated annealing (MCSA) approaches. In this section, we will cover some of these strategies.
Two proposals are based on nearest neighbor. The first method is proposed by Vincent et al. 29 and consists of two phases. In the first phase, a binary classifier determines the prediction of cysteine bonding states and whether or not the disulfide bridges correspond to intra- or interchain. The second phase is formed by a simple 1-nearest neighbor (1-NN) algorithm based on separation distances between cysteines and evolutionary profiles. The second proposal, described by Niu et al. 30 , is based on a nearest neighbor algorithm using a FS method for the intra- and inter-disulfide bond prediction. They use an incremental FS to determine the optimal number of features. Sequence distance, PSSMs, residual disorder, and amino acid factor were used for the encoding.
Fariselli and Casadio 31 present a method based on MCSA and the Gabow's algorithm to solve the problem of maximum weight matching problem. The contact potential between each pair of cysteines is calculated with the Edmond–Gabow's algorithm. Hydrophobic and charged amino acids are taken into account for the prediction.
A summary of these methods is shown in Table 3. The best results are obtained by the method described by Vincent et al. 29 This 1-NN approach also includes evolutionary profiles that enhance the prediction accuracy.
Summary of other methods for disulfide connectivity pattern prediction in chronological order.
Conclusion
The DCP problem can be considered as a previous step for the PSP problem. Once the cysteine bridges are identified and established, the protein conformational search space is highly reduced. In this paper, we present a compilation of the DCP methods based on soft computing techniques. Soft computing methods have shown to be well suited for the treatment of massive amounts of biological data. 33 In this problem, those methods that use evolutionary information from sequence alignments obtain better results than others.
Comparing the performance of the different approaches, we cannot draw clear conclusions to determine which is the best methodology. It depends on the data set used, the input features of the machine learning algorithm, among other factors. However, according to their excellent results, we can highlight two previously described approaches: a SVM method presented by Lin et al. 19 and Dinosolve. 27 These methods include the use of PSSM and DOC, two important features in DCP.
Although the prediction accuracy is improved in the latest years, existing approaches fail to obtain accurate models in DCP. Several methods achieve accuracies of about 80%–90%; however, the size of the data sets used in the experimentations is quite small and a general model to predict any protein disulfide connectivity is not found yet. Nowadays, DCP is still considered an unresolved problem, in terms of nonspecific approaches. As future lines of work, it is becoming ever more evident the important role of evolutionary information as input feature for DCP algorithms. Latest methods combine cysteine co-evolutionary analysis as a feature to enhance the predictions. 34 High-quality alignments and phylogenetic trees are also recently used by Raimondi et al. 35
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: AEMC. Analyzed the data: AEMC. Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: AEMC. Contributed to the writing of the manuscript: AEMC. Agree with manuscript results and conclusions: AEMC, JSAR. Jointly developed the structure and arguments for the paper: AEMC, JSAR. Made critical revisions and approved final version: JSAR. Both authors reviewed and approved of the final manuscript.