Are Commuters in the EU Better Educated than Non-commuters but Worse than Migrants?

Abstract

This paper analyses the skill and age structure of commuters in 14 EU countries. Theory implies that commuters can be either more or less able than stayers, but are always less able and older than migrants. Empirically, all types of commuters are younger and have higher education than region stayers, but older and less educated than migrants. Internal commuters are better educated and younger than cross-border commuters, education decreases while age increases with distance commuted and recent migrants are younger but also more highly educated than commuters.