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Abstract

Low student intrinsic motivation poses a significant challenge to higher education. Over-reliance on remote and passive approaches to learning has left many students unmotivated to learn, hampering critical skill development and leaving them underprepared for employment. The need for more innovative forms of teaching is apparent, yet educators operate in a resource-constrained environment. Research endorses the inclusion of active and game-based learning in higher education, however while fantastical elements are common in games and can improve intrinsic motivation, this aspect has been excluded from many serious games. In this paper, we extend on a serious games framework to integrate imaginal elements (escapism, role-projection, and fantasy) in a table-top role-playing game called ‘Challenges and Changelings’ that allows students to ‘roll’ their way to more intrinsic motivation and skill development. A qualitative exploratory case study—which implemented this game as part of a multi-disciplinary university unit—was used to evaluate this as a proof-of-concept. Findings provide initial evidence of the potential for imaginal elements in serious games to enhance student learning outcomes via improving intrinsic motivation, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge application. We provide a novel unifying framework of imaginal learning and provide educators with actionable implementation guidelines and accompanying resources.

Keywords

serious games imaginal elements gamification game-based learning

Introduction

Despite research advocating for the importance of games as an effective active learning tool (Grimley et al., 2011; Manzano-León et al., 2021), games remain uncommon in universities. Those that do appear rarely embrace the highly fantastical elements that are innate to so many games, despite the applicability of such elements for translating abstract complex concepts such as theories and frameworks into digestible metaphors (Vågan, 2011). One example is Dungeons and Dragons. This highly fantastical role-playing table-top game requires high levels of game content knowledge (e.g. spells, monsters, and lore of the world), logic and mathematical skills for dice rolling, creative and critical thinking for problem solving, and collaboration with other players; the overlap between skills developed within this game and skills universities seek to teach students to improve student learning outcomes is remarkable. This type of game could be transposed into an academic context to create an imaginal serious game—a serious game including elements such as fantasy, escapism, and role-play—where the development of these skills is motivated by the more fantastical game elements. This paper introduces a university-level imaginal serious game, Challenges and Changelings, where instead of rolling dice purely for entertainment, students ‘roll for intelligence’.

Many students lack intrinsic motivation in learning, instead viewing the university experience as an extrinsic requirement to get a job, and thus prioritising obtaining their degree as quickly and easily as possible (Bhardwa, 2017). The over-focus on extrinsic outcomes to the detriment of intrinsic value is a global problem with reports from Australia, Canada, and Singapore indicating that students who overfocus on grades de-emphasise actual learning and are less likely to take risks (Orman et al., 2023; Wong, 2022). The intrinsic value of the university experience seems to have been lost, and with it, critical student outcomes such as memory retention (Duan et al., 2020), critical thinking skills (Huber & Kuncel, 2016), and practical skills (Willis & Leiman, 2013). This focus on extrinsic value results in a paradox where graduates are fundamentally underprepared for the extrinsic outcome of employment (Heimbrock, 2023). The gap between the actual and required skills required for the workplace brings the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods into question (Farashahi & Tajeddin, 2018). With university costs rising, it is becoming more important than ever for universities to provide value to retain students.

A qualitative case study approach was used to trial the imaginal serious game Challenges and Changelings at an Australian university, seeking to enhance student learning outcomes through a game-based active learning approach. Student feedback was collected via a survey with a series of open-ended questions, and some single-item quantitative measures. We note however, that we took a primarily qualitative approach to this study. Our findings revealed that the inclusion of all three imaginal elements in a serious game appeared to enhance student learning outcomes. Specifically, escapism increased intrinsic motivation, fantasy provided digestible metaphors to improve knowledge and comprehension of content, and role projection improved the ability to apply skills. The unit performed better than the faculty average on all four survey items: learning satisfaction, engagement with other students, useful feedback, and development of career-relevant skills and knowledge. This research extends on game-based learning literature by introducing an imaginal learning framework which integrates previous knowledge under a unified model and provides a conceptual framework for imaginal serious games. We provide an illustrative case study and resources for educators to be able to implement an imaginal serious game in their own classes. The game was designed for a multi-disciplinary unit, thus allows educators from nearly any discipline to use the base of the game and supplement in their own content (i.e. theories, concepts, frameworks, etc.).

Background Literature

Student Learning Outcomes

Student learning outcomes refer to a student’s ability to do now what they could not before, where the focus is on growth and development (Watson, 2002), often measured through metrics such as student grades, class attendance, and satisfaction (CQFW et al., 2001). Specifically, learning outcomes consider student knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). The traditional approach to facilitating student learning outcomes is through passive delivery modes such as lectures, which do not require active student participation. However, with both students and universities focussing primarily on extrinsic motivation (i.e. obtaining a degree) rather than intrinsic motivations such as the quality of learning and enjoyment (Bhardwa, 2017; Carroll-Meehan & Dunbar-Morris, 2022), students’ ability to learn effectively is hampered (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012). Students who are intrinsically motivated—where they enjoy the process of learning in itself—are more likely to engage in independent learning, obtain higher grades and develop long term skills necessary for the workforce (Carroll-Meehan & Dunbar-Morris, 2022). However, while passive teaching assumes students are already highly motivated to learn, the reality is that many students are not (Bhardwa, 2017). Extrinsic motivation alone is not enough to encourage students to engage in long-term effective learning behaviours (Saeed & Zyngier, 2012), and over-reliance on it can actually erode intrinsic motivation over time (Derfler-Rozin & Pitesa, 2020). With students struggling more than ever to engage with university curriculum (Harvard Business Review, 2022) and university dropout rates increasing exponentially (Australian Government Productivity Commission, 2017), a different approach to facilitating student learning outcomes is required to meet the needs of the modern student.

Most tertiary education facilitates passive teaching through the standard learning hierarchy—a type within the Hierarchy of Effects which examines the relationship between student thoughts, feelings, and behaviours to enable learning (Ray et al., 1973; Russell-Bennett et al., 2016). This hierarchy prioritises the acquisition of knowledge through telling students what they should know (think), students then evaluate how they feel about that information (feel) and then they are expected to apply the knowledge in their own time via assignments (do; Twedell, 2020). However, while this approach may attempt to teach students skills, it does not provide the intrinsic motivation required to do so effectively (Deeley, 2010; Russell-Bennett et al., 2016).

Imaginal Serious Games in Education

Serious games offer an environment where students can experience greater intrinsic motivation by enjoyably practising application of learned concepts while interacting with their teachers and other students to transform their acquired knowledge from purely theoretical to practical skills they can use in the workforce (McKenzie et al., 2002). Experiential learning—a form of active learning—provides students with numerous opportunities to practice their skills in a hands-on way through the use of the Experiential Learning Hierarchy (do—feel—learn; Ray et al., 1973). This contrasts the standard learning hierarchy by removing the onus of upfront motivation from the student, to instead allow them to become motivated by the intrinsic hedonic elements of the process. An imaginal experience—a form of experiential learning—uses elements such as fantasy and role-play to transpose theories, frameworks, and other forms of knowledge into a more engaging and fun form (Vågan, 2011; Wu & Holsapple, 2014), thus can improve learning outcomes.

There are three elements of imaginal experiences which contribute to this sense of immersion: fantasy, escapism, and role projection (Hirschman, 1983). Fantasy refers to imagining an illusory world with elements such as story, characters, worldbuilding, and magic (Hirschman, 1983; Wu & Holsapple, 2014). Escapism refers to a student’s ability to ‘escape’ reality through mental diversion to a more desirable world (Hirschman, 1983). Role projection refers to students taking on the role of characters to allow them to imagine themselves with this character’s knowledge and skills (Hirschman, 1983). Imaginal elements are a powerful driver of intrinsic motivation (Ryan et al., 2006), and a potent mechanism to motivate students who are less intrinsically motivated by education and are distracted easily (Zuo et al., 2022). Such elements are common in digital games, and particularly in AR/VR educational approaches (Buchner & Kerres, 2023; Checa & Bustillo, 2020; Chen et al., 2024; Lampropoulos et al., 2022). One example being the use of fantasy in a ‘time travel’ VR experience to teach history (Checa & Bustillo, 2020). These tools have been shown to enhance imaginative fluency as they can overlay fantasy elements onto the real world (Chen et al., 2024). VR/AR acts as a stimulus for imagination and ideation and are used to increase skill development (Chen et al., 2024; Checa & Bustillo, 2020; Lampropoulos et al., 2022; Paszkiewicz et al., 2021).

Thus, imaginal experiences can be achieved via game-based learning, which refers to the use of game design elements to enhance learning outcomes (van Gaalen et al., 2021). The main forms of game-based learning are gamification, serious games, and simulations (van Gaalen et al., 2021). Serious games in particular are becoming more utilised as a successful tool for learning and maintaining knowledge as they allow students to actively participate in problem solving and critical thinking in a fun and immersive way, thus enhancing intrinsic motivation (Zhonggen, 2019). By nature, games often incorporate highly imaginal elements, however while many serious games include role projection, they rarely embrace higher levels of abstraction and tend to shy away from highly fantastical elements (see Table 1). However, high levels of abstraction are particularly useful in communicating complex concepts because they break these down into understandable metaphors (Vågan, 2011).

Table 1.

Key Studies of Serious Game Implementation in Higher Education (Non-Exhaustive).

Author/s (year)	Overview of game	Field	Country of study	Type	Imaginal elements	Student outcomes
Mayer and Johnson (2010)	Arcade-type game teaching electrical circuits	Science	USA	Digital game	None	Increased student accuracy on knowledge learned
Carr and Bossomaier (2011)	Game based on Asteroids to teach physics	Science	Australia	Digital game	Fantasy (limited)	Increase student interest in learning
Guillén-Nieto and Aleson-Carbonell (2012)	It’s a Deal! Teaches intercultural communication skills	Business	Spain	Digital game	None	Increased student knowledge and competency on topic
Malaquias et al. (2018)	DEBORAH game to teach technology acceptance	Business and Information Systems	Brazil	Digital game	Fantasy (limited)	Increased student knowledge on topic
Hernández-Lara and Serradell-López (2018)	Cesim Global Challenge game simulating a telecom company	Business	Spain	Digital game	None	Increased student soft skills and some specific managerial skills
Whalen et al. (2018)	In The Loop game to teach the Circular Economy	Business	Sweden	Physical board game	Role projection	Improved student critical thinking skills and in systems thinking
Plecher et al. (2020)	HieroQuest to teach middle Egyptian hieroglyphics	History and linguistics	Germany	Digital game	Fantasy, escapism	Increased student knowledge on topic
Tsopra et al. (2020)	AntibioGame to teach medical students about antibiotic use	Medicine	France	Digital game	Role projection	Increased student knowledge on topic
This study	Challenges and Changelings to teach business students about behaviour change	Business	Australia	Physical and Digital Game	Fantasy,Escapism,Role projection	Increased satisfaction and enhanced learning outcomes

We coin the term imaginal serious games to describe games that use high levels of abstraction, metaphors, and fantastical elements prominently. There is little explicit research into the impact of imaginal elements on student learning outcomes within serious games, and how to practically design and implement an imaginal serious game for the classroom. One notable paper is that of Grimley et al. (2011) on digital fantasy games for student motivation; we advance their foundational work by extending on the serious game framework (Bedwell et al., 2012) to formally include imaginal elements as a theoretical mechanism. As per the experiential learning hierarchy (Ray et al., 1973), imaginal elements improve the emotional response that mediates cognitive learning, and can motivate even ‘hard-to-teach’ students because of the intrinsic motivation created (Zuo et al., 2022), therefore is an important component of games that many serious games seem to have unduly dismissed. Thus, we propose the following research question:

RQ: How might imaginal serious games enhance student learning outcomes?

Echeverría et al. (2011) assert the importance of creating resources for educators to design games with two goals: how to build the game as an educational tool and how to make it fun and engaging. Thus, this research presents a framework for an imaginal serious game that was implemented as part of a behavioural change unit at an Australian University; this can be used by educators and transposed with their alternative unit content.

The Imaginal Serious Game: Challenges and Changelings

Challenges and Changelings was implemented as part of a business unit at an Australian University that explored how different disciplines tackled behavioural change—for a full guide on how to play, free templates and game resources, go to https://www.brittanycurrenti.com/challenges-and-changelings. The game was designed to be similar to Dungeons and Dragons (D&D), in that it was a fantasy role-play table-top game. Using Wu and Holsapple’s (2014) imaginal elements, we designed the game around three central pivots: high levels of fantasy, escapism, and role projection (see Table 2). We also used Bedwell et al. (2012) serious game characteristics, which include providing challenges, ensuring students can control the outcome of the game, world building, human interaction, and rules and goals. Game elements from D&D were utilised to design the game mechanics, including a dungeon master, dice rolling, classes for characters, skills for characters, and monsters/enemies. See Table 2 for overview of the imaginal serious game framework. We caveat that we have only included the up-to-date game framework in this paper—which has slight amendments based on feedback from the version we tested—for the sake of brevity and to avoid confusion.

Table 2.

Imaginal Serious Game Framework.

Framework features	Challenges and Changelings features
Imaginal Elements (Wu & Holsapple, 2014)
Escapism	Dice, challenges, immersion in role playing, tactile game
Role projection	Five discipline characters
Fantasy	Changeling (behavioural challenge), fantasy classes for characters (e.g. Wizard), shiftstone dust currency, fantasy illustrations
Serious game characteristics ( Bedwell et al., 2012 )
Action language	Verbal pitch and feedback loops with educator, strategy sheet
Assessment (win/lose)	Verbal feedback during strategising, scoresheet at the end, dice results
Challenge	Changeling, difficulty over the semester increasing (# health hearts)
Student control of game outcomes	Sandbox sort of game-endless possibilities for solutions, how correct skills are applied to solution, number of dice rolled
Environment	Physical location and online (Padlet)
Game fiction	Middle-age fantasy setting
Human interaction	Student teams, Master of Interventions/changeling (educator)
Immersion in game	Quest music, tactile game pieces, illustrations
Rules and goals	Rules of the game, won/not, shiftstone dust, and prizes
Dungeons and Dragons Elements
Dungeon master	Master of Interventions (MoI; educator)
Players	Student teams
Monsters/enemies	Changelings-specific weaknesses and strengths (motivators and barriers), health hearts
Dice roll	Up to five 6-sided dice
Characters: classes	Character disciplines
Character: spells	Skills (theories and frameworks akin to magic spells)
Character: stats (i.e. charisma, wisdom, etc.)	Character traits (stats): creativity, agency, impactfulness, theoretical, agency
Character: health points	Health hearts
Table-top gameplay	Physical or virtual table
Game currency	Shiftstone dust
Middle-ages design style	Illustrations
Handbooks	Educator handbook and student book

For a full description of the imaginal serious game framework, see Supplemental Appendices A and B.

The game was directly applicable to assessment as students were able to practice devising strategies in a safe and creative environment before implementing their ideas; for example, the game play allowed students real-time feedback on their pitches. Additionally, the two major pieces of assessment used the same format as the strategy sheet the students used to form their pitch in-game (but without imaginal elements), creating a clear link between the game, assessment, and the real world.

The following sections summarise the key elements of the framework. For brevity, we only discuss the key components of each part of the framework to illustrate how an imaginal serious game framework can be implemented. See Supplemental Appendix A for a full outline of how to run and play Challenges and Changelings, and Supplemental Appendix B for the full imaginal serious game framework.

A Summary of How to Play the Game

The game began with students creating teams and role playing as one of five change disciplines—social marketing (the Musketeer), communications (the Bard), behavioural economics (the Wizard), economics (the Warlock), and law (the Paladin)—enabling them to understand each discipline’s unique strengths and skills. Every week, teams confronted a ‘changeling’ representing a behavioural challenge, and had to critically decide which discipline(s) would best address the issue. Using their chosen character’s ‘skills’ (theories and frameworks), students crafted innovative strategies to overcome the barriers and leverage motivators for change. Teams would then pitch their strategy to the educator, who used a set of criteria to determine how many dice teams would receive to ‘battle’ the changeling—the stronger the students’ proposed strategy, the more dice they received, the higher their chance at success. This put their strategies to the test to see if they successfully addressed the social problem and utilised their learned frameworks correctly.

Imaginal Elements Used in the Game

Escapism aims to distract students from the problems and pressures they may have in reality (Hirschman, 1983; Wu & Holsapple, 2014). By increasing immersion in a fun experience, students are more likely to achieve escapism and value the learning experience more as a result (Wu & Holsapple, 2014). The use of a predominantly physical setting and physical elements such as a printed card deck, strategy sheet, and changeling, promoted a tactile experience, which can improve engagement and immersion with learning due to sensory stimulation and grounding a student in the moment (Bregman, 1994). While digital technology such as AR and VR are also effective learning tools, they are not always feasible or appropriate to implement, with limitations including high costs, accessibility issues, and domain-specific design constraints (Paszkiewicz et al., 2021; López-Belmonte et al., 2023). The low-tech analogue formats of a physical game was not only the more pragmatic choice, but the in-person experience especially encouraged students to put aside distractions, focussing only on the game and their present teammates. Additionally, the game was designed to be challenging by nature which is integral to immersion (and thus, escapism), as individuals can only a state of deep concentration when challenged (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Aiming to stay at the edge of student abilities, the challenges increased in difficulty over the semester (easy changelings at first, then moderate ones).

Fantasy elements prompt students to think creatively and stretch their ideas beyond the limits of reality (Wu & Holsapple, 2014). The characters in the game themselves were derived from classic fantasy classes and ‘battled’ changelings (monsters); by presenting the characters and challenges in this way, we encouraged students to take risks and think in ways they might have overlooked in a more realistic setting. Illustrations were done to reinforce this aspect, displaying the characters in middle-aged type clothing, and wielding magic or swords.

Role projection enables students to project themselves into an in-game character and vice versa, encouraging internalisation of knowledge and emotional investment (Wu & Holsapple, 2014). In Challenges and Changelings, students embodied the skills and strengths of a character, requiring them to change their mindset to think like them rather than themselves. For example, the Musketeer required the students to shift their mindset into that of a marketer, where they are essentially ‘selling’ a value proposition to the target audience. By shifting mindsets and making decisions in line with that of their character, students could better internalise the skills and theories they were learning through active application, resulting in abstract concepts becoming tangible through play. These three imaginal elements were pivotal to this game, allowing students to think creatively, take risks in a safe environment, and explore possibilities beyond reality.

Serious Game Characteristics

Bedwell et al. (2012) provide a taxonomy of serious game attributes and the most important elements for training outcomes. To avoid repetition with other sections where concepts overlap, this section will discuss the key elements broadly; please see Supplemental Appendices A and B for the full implementation of these. The game provides a clear set of Rules for students to follow; students must use the template strategy to design their intervention and must correctly identify the Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability of the target audience, address the barrier and motivation, and correctly apply a theory. Students are given Control over their gameplay, in that there is a large degree of freedom for how they solve the behavioural Challenge and how they design their intervention. Goals in the game include defeating the changeling, but also the ability to win Shiftstone dust—the fantasy currency in the game—to purchase rewards at the end of the semester, providing additional extrinsic motivation. These serious game elements have been found to increase motivation to learn, knowledge, cognitive strategies, and application of concepts (Bedwell et al., 2012).

Dungeons and Dragons Elements

The use of metaphors can improve communication of nebulous ideas, and Challenges and Changelings leveraged several game elements inspired by D&D to do this. The game abstracted complex topics through common fantasy tropes to communicate theories and frameworks in a way that was understandable and interesting. For example, the game uses ‘characters’ who battle ‘changelings’ (social behavioural problems) while utilising ‘skills’ (theories and frameworks) which is akin to characters, monsters, and magic spells in D&D. The use of fantasy classes (a common way to describe character archetypes in games) for the characters abstracted complex ideas of differences between disciplines. For example, a Wizard was chosen to represent behavioural economics as the discipline includes techniques such as leveraging unconscious biases and using nudges to encourage behaviour change in a way that could be seen as almost ‘magical’ because it often happens without conscious awareness. The use of common D&D classes leveraged preconceived notions and ideas to quickly and effectively communicate knowledge.

Research shows that educators taking an active role in game-play improves learning (Taylor et al., 2012), and D&D relies on the interactions between the players and the Dungeon Master to collaboratively story-tell and move the game forward. As in D&D, students would work in teams and with the educator acting as the ‘Master of Interventions’ (i.e. the Dungeon Master), allowing for a real time feedback loop on their strategies.

The use of dice to determine whether a strategy was successful or not added an element of chance to the game, mimicking real life scenarios where even the most perfect plans may not be successful due to unforeseen factors. This encouraged students to think critically about the decisions they made to maximise their chance of success. Students could improve their chances through the correct application of theories and frameworks, giving them a sense of agency and control over the outcomes which improves motivation to participate (Ryan et al., 2006).

The Research Design

To address the research question, we trialled the game as part of a university behavioural economics subject, though we note the subject was multidisciplinary and had content and students from various faculties. The selection of this particular unit was based on pedagogical, theoretical, and pragmatic criteria. Pedagogically, the unit’s multidisciplinary nature aligned with role-playing game mechanics, enabling students to embody a persona of each discipline and the associated decision-making perspective. Further, the unit’s content structure—requiring students to learn and apply numerous theories and frameworks—posed the challenge of a high cognitive load, particularly in a first-year subject. Using a game-based approach in this unit was therefore an apt strategy to examine the effect of an imaginal serious game in driving engagement. Theoretically, as Eisenhardt (1989) notes, sampling involves choosing cases based on their capacity to extend emerging theory. This multidisciplinary nature of the unit was perfectly suited to testing an imaginal game (which often has multiple character ‘classes’), thus allowing us to extend on serious game frameworks. Pragmatically, as this unit was being launched, it offered an opportunity to thoroughly embed game mechanics as the unit was being designed.

Hence, an exploratory qualitative case study approach was selected, following Eisenhardt’s (1989, 2007) case study approach. This method was chosen as it allowed us to gather empirical evidence in the field, thus contextualising our findings in their natural environment (Eisenhardt, 1989; Harland, 2014). Aligned with Richardson et al. (2021), this qualitative approach facilitated gathering in-depth understanding of how imaginal mechanisms and the game overall impacted learning in a real-life context by engaging directly with individual experiences. While case studies are qualitative in nature and our primary source of data is qualitative (Carr & Kemmis, 2003), we note the addition of some quantitative survey results to allow some additional insight alongside the qualitative comments, given that five single-item measures were included as a benchmarking tool in this a university-wide survey used for all units.

Data Collection and Sample Characteristics

The trial of the game was conducted at the Australian University where it was developed. The potential effectiveness of the game was measured via a mixed method approach. Firstly, qualitative feedback was gathered from a university student survey where students enrolled in this unit were asked opened ended questions such as ‘what aspects of this unit were done well’ and ‘what aspects of this unit could be done better’. Secondly, quantitative feedback was gathered from this survey where students were asked questions on four dimensions: learning experience satisfaction, opportunities to engage with other students, provision of useful feedback, and career-relevant skills and knowledge. These questions were single-item measures presented on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

The sample comprised undergraduate students studying behavioural economics in the focal case study unit, with the majority of students enrolled in a behavioural economics major, though we note there were also students from marketing, law, and creative industries disciplines. Though a first-year unit, the cohort comprised of students ranging from their first to third year of their undergraduate degree. The total sample achieved was n=23, which represents 34.8% of the students in this unit. Ethics approval number: Queensland University of Technolgy ethics committee 8287- HE09.

Researchers’ Positionality Statements

Reflecting on our backgrounds as educators, researchers, and game enthusiasts, we, the authors, acknowledge the impact of our backgrounds and experiences in shaping the design and the interpretation of findings of the study and the game. Our backgrounds in service design mean that we view the student learning experience through a service lens, meaning we see the student as a co-creator of value and an active participant in the learning experience. This perspective highlights the importance of co-design and student-centricity. Additionally, Currenti’s extensive background in user experience design (UX) contributed to and informed our participatory approach to design and evaluation in this research. The methodology and interpretation of the findings were also directly influenced by this underpinning phenomenological perspective. That is, we believe that participants (students) are informants, where they are knowledgeable agents who can, to some degree, articulate their own perceptions and interpretations of the world. Student voices—in tandem with the researchers (i.e. via applying theory to understand data)—guided iterative design of the game and informed analysis. As part of our commitment to critical reflexivity, the authors also sought additional voices for feedback, including industry and academic experts at conferences and during pre-development of the game. Furthermore, Currenti’s particular background as someone who plays many digital games shaped their interpretation of findings, especially related to specific game mechanics, and influenced the meanings attributed to participant accounts; dual-coding with Letheren and feedback on findings ensured interpretations were challenged and validated.

Findings

This exploratory case study approach employed qualitative analysis techniques including a lexical sentiment analysis for open coding, and then a manual thematic coding for axial and selective coding. This will be addressed first in a brief Leximancer and sentiment analysis, and then through an in-depth discussion of three major themes emerging from this work. A summary of the single-item measure results is provided in Figure 1 and referred to as part of the qualitative analysis.

Figure 1.

Student quantitative unit feedback scores—summary.

Automated Textual Analysis: Concepts and Connections

To perform open coding, a Leximancer analysis was used (see Figure 2). Analysis revealed that ‘game’ emerged with the highest thematic connectivity (224). This centrality indicates that the educational game functioned not merely as a discrete learning activity, but as a framework through which students understood and experienced this unit. The sentiment analysis confirms predominantly positive student responses, with concepts such as ‘helpful’, ‘enjoyed’, and ‘interesting’ consistently appearing in association with core learning activities. For example, some of the strongest sentiments included, ‘LOVE THE GAME!’, and ‘I’ve never learnt like this before or done anything else like it, but I think it was beyond useful for everything I did this unit. It was very successful and I hope you continue to do it in the future. I wouldn’t have learnt so much about the disciplines without the practical element’. Approximately 33% of the quotations were purely positive, with the remainder mostly positive but also offering constructive suggestions. Notably, no unequivocally negative comments were received. Critical-toned comments focussed on time management (having more time for the game), learning curve recognition (understanding sooner so as to spend more time engaged in playing), and suitability for individual learning styles (the need to offer a more scholarly tone for some cohorts): hence, students are trying to align the game to their own preferences and spend more time engaging with it, rather than dismantling it. Two students mentioned they thought the game was too childish for them, however one caveated ‘I definitely think this course is a worthwhile addition to [the university]’s content’.

Figure 2.

Leximancer analysis of qualitative student comments.

A summary of results is provided in Supplemental Appendix C.

Integrated Thematic Analysis: Three Overarching Patterns

Three major themes emerged from analysis of the data: escapism increased intrinsic motivation, fantasy supported knowledge acquisition through metaphors, and role projection improved application of knowledge.

Escapism Increased Intrinsic Motivation

Escapism refers to a student’s desire to be distracted from reality and to immerse oneself into another activity (Wu & Holsapple, 2014) and is achieved through enjoyable, fun experiences that are challenging enough to demand total focus (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Student feedback indicated that while participants noticed a strong learning curve in the first few weeks of the unit as the game was introduced and learned, after they overcame this they found themselves really enjoying and engaging with the game and the world within. For example, ‘The first tutorial I still remember having a very steep learning curve, I don’t think I really got the game until 3 weeks in,’ ‘I liked the behaviour quest game and enjoyed brainstorming with my group,’ and ‘This unit went above and beyond to provide learning material that was fresh, engaging and really well designed’. A strong majority of participants commented on the uniqueness of the game, for instance, ‘I’ve never learnt like this before or done anything else like it . . . ’ or ‘Playing the game was one of the most unique experiences I’ve had throughout four years in uni . . .’. These findings are indicative of the experiential learning hierarchy, where students played the game first, made affective judgements (i.e. had fun), and then learned as a result.

While some participants commented on the learning curve and initial difficulty of the game, this was expected as the unit was intentionally designed to be ‘active’ rather than ‘passive’. Challenging yet enjoyable experiences provide a sense of ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014) which can facilitate escapism as it gives students a fun reprieve from other problems or pressures in their life (Wu & Holsapple, 2014). Many participants described the unit with words such as ‘fun’, ‘engaging’ and ‘enjoyable’. Student satisfaction levels with the unit are aligned with this, boasting 87% of respondents as satisfied (61% strongly agreed, 26% agreed); this can be compared to the faculty average of 75%. Further attesting to student immersion was the high levels of attendance and unit engagement with one participant stating, ‘This unit is also the only one where people still attended tutes all the way to the end,’ and the in-person attendance record averaging at 84% of students attending. Students were intrinsically motivated to engage with the unit, further supported by the relatively high response rate to this survey (34.8%) as compared to the faculty response average (17%).

Fantasy Supported Comprehension and Knowledge Acquisition Through Metaphors

Fantasy elements, and imaginal elements in general, can improve student learning outcomes due to the use of metaphors which can transform complex and abstract concepts such as theories and frameworks into a more digestible form (Vågan, 2011). Our findings support this idea, with students explicitly stating that the game increased their knowledge and understanding of unit content unprompted. For example, ‘Playing the game was one of the most unique experiences Ive had throughout 4 years in uni and really aided my understanding in the topics’ and ‘The aspect of the game provided a great way to introduce the concepts and ideas’. When asked to rate if this unit provided opportunities to develop skills and knowledge, findings showed 92% of participants agreed it did (57% strongly agree, 35% agree); this can be compared to the faculty average of 82%). Student grades for the unit averaged 72%, a high credit.

Role Projection Improved Application of Knowledge

Role Projection allowed students to apply the theories and frameworks they learned through fantasy metaphors more effectively as it encouraged active learning. As they played, students embodied the mindset of the characters, thinking, and feeling as a professional of that discipline would. Participants found the game useful for understanding the disciplines and applying their relevant theories and disciplines; for example, ‘the game we played in class was fun and actually helped out heaps with understanding the disciplines and applying them in the assessments’. Importantly, participants indicated that they not only understood the unit’s content, but felt confident they could translate this back into a real-world context. For example, ‘I really enjoyed the practical element of actually using the knowledge we gained and attempted to solve behavioural challenges’. This is also reflected in the previous finding of 92% of students agreeing the unit provided opportunities to develop skills and knowledge.

Overall, these three findings indicate that by the end of the semester students were able to do what they could not do before, with participants discussing confidence in unit knowledge and skill development, thus improving student learning outcomes (Watson, 2002).

Discussion and Conclusion

Through the introduction of imaginal learning and accompanying frameworks, this research begins to address need identified in gamification/education literature for theoretical scaffolding and application of serious games in tertiary education. A major challenge in higher education is the decline in student intrinsic motivation with the learning experience, leaving students underprepared for employment (Heimbrock, 2023). Current teaching methods are no longer enough to encourage consistent motivation and effective skill development (Harvard Business Review, 2022). To address this, this study extends on Bedwell et al. (2012) serious games framework to include imaginal elements (Wu & Holsapple, 2014), as an unduly dismissed pathway to improved student learning outcomes, contributing to higher education literature. This extension directly addresses concerns raised regarding the limited understanding and application of fantastical elements in educational contexts (Grimley et al., 2011; Manzano-León et al., 2021), with our proposed framework providing justification for their inclusion in tertiary education. Specifically, we use a qualitative case study approach to explore how imaginal serious games can enhance student learning outcomes. We provide an initial ‘proof of concept’ for the inclusion of imaginal elements in serious games and propose the new imaginal serious games framework. More broadly, we coin the term imaginal learning which refers to the inclusion of imaginal elements in education experiences and can be applied to other types of game-based learning. Our findings extend the theoretical understanding of the mechanisms and outcomes of imaginal learning and offer educators a practical toolkit for implementing imaginal serious games.

Our first contribution lies in the introduction and validation of imaginal learning which brings together three sub-contributions from our findings to propose a unifying conceptual model (see Figure 3). Building upon the foundational framework of Bedwell et al. (2012), this model begins to address the need for empirical validation identified by Grimley et al. (2011). Whilst scholars recognise the potential of imaginative elements (Grimley et al., 2011; Manzano-León et al., 2021), there was a lack of a comprehensive theoretical structure to explain the mechanisms of action for imaginative elements, a gap this unifying model begins to address. While previous serious games in higher education have incorporated one or two imaginal elements, they rarely take a holistic approach (see table 1). However, our findings demonstrate that each of the three imaginal elements naturally aligns to three forms of engagement—affective, cognitive, and behavioural respectively (Hollebeek, 2011), suggesting that imaginal learning may enhance all three types. Engagement is well linked to increased student learning outcomes (Webber et al., 2013), and thus we use the intersection of this to theoretically ground our model.

Figure 3.

A framework for imaginal learning through serious games.

We find that escapism increasing intrinsic motivation aligns with emotional engagement which incorporates elements of flow (immersion) and hedonic enjoyment (Hollebeek, 2011). In their comments students noted the feeling of immersion, and were not only able to—but importantly, wanted to—disengage from other academic stresses or distractions when playing the game. This aligns with Willis and Leiman’s (2013) work on imaginal knowledge which also found escapism leading to higher levels of emotional investment. The imaginal learning concept responds to the concerns raised regarding student motivations (Bhardwa, 2017; Orman, 2023) and preparedness for work (Heimbrock et al, 2023) by suggesting a way to shift focus from purely extrinsic motivation to intrinsic engagement through imagination.

Second, we find that fantasy enhancing knowledge acquisition aligns with cognitive engagement which incorporates cognitions, thought, and mental processes (Hollebeek, 2011); the use of metaphors created promising conditions for cognitive engagement. Students commented on how the game helped them grasp concepts and ideas more easily, for instance by representing the disciplines as characters with different skills (theories/frameworks) to wield against changelings (behavioural challenges). This aligns with Vågan’s (2011) argument that metaphors are important tools for knowledge transfer. Third, we find that role projection improving knowledge application aligns with behavioural engagement which refers to actual actions (Hollebeek, 2011); students were required to actively apply theories and frameworks while acting as a specific discipline. This is in line with Russell-Bennett et al.’s (2016) research which found that role play (and active learning) improved student engagement behaviours such as active and collaborative learning.

This imaginal learning framework is the first unifying model of imaginal experiences in game-based learning in higher education. We offer an integrating contribution (MacInnis, 2011) which summarises the varying combinations in which imaginal elements can be applied to serious games, directly responding to the issue of fragmented use of imaginative elements in serious games, despite their efficacy (Grimley et al., 2011; Manzano-León et al., 2021). This research provides early empirical evidence for the inclusion of all three elements, but also proposes a way to categorise serious games which only include one or two elements. Our results indicate the potential effectiveness of the inclusion of all three elements and we propose this may be more effective than only including one or two as the combination of all three forms of engagement is a potent facilitator of learning (Acosta-Gonzaga & Ramirez-Arellano, 2022). We also identify three crossover learning types already utilised in practice, but which combine two of the three elements, and which would benefit from additional research in their own right (Fantasy-escapism: immersive learning; Fantasy-role projection: playful learning; Escapism-role projection: Structured learning).

Our second contribution is the comprehensive imaginal serious games framework (see Table 2), which provides educators with clear guidelines on how to implement an imaginal serious game to support student learning outcomes. Theoretically, we provide another integrative contribution (MacInnis, 2011) by synthesising Bedwell et al. (2012) serious game framework with Wu and Holsapple’s (2014) imaginal elements and Dungeons and Dragons elements in a novel way. This integration operationalises Grimley et al. (2011) finding that fantasy elements in games enhance student motivation and is applicable in many educational scenarios. That is, the game was designed with multidisciplinary substitution in mind, hence it is potentially generalisable to any subject that calls for students to actively engage with complexities. Managerially, this framework helps address the resource constraints affecting higher education (Beazley, 2023; Simpson-Wise, 2023) and game implementation (Moizer et al., 2009), by answering the call for resources (Echeverría et al., 2011) and democratising innovative teaching through imaginal learning.

Limitations and Future Research

Our approach offers some limitations as well as opportunities for future research. Firstly, our study’s focus on intrinsic motivation, while grounded in experiential learning principles, represents a limitation in fully understanding the motivational complexity of serious games. While our game included some extrinsic motivations such as collecting Shiftstone dust (currency) for defeating a monster and end-of-semester prizes in exchange for this (stickers), there is room to more explicitly examine extrinsic motivation. For example, through measurement and analysis of the effect of extrinsic motivators such as competition, institutional rewards, other prizes, and grades. Research should examine whether extrinsic motivators enhance or potentially undermine the intrinsic engagement generated by fantasy narratives, addressing concerns about motivation crowding effects (Frey & Jegen, 2001).

Secondly, there are limitations of a single case study analysis. For example, case data cannot capture quantitative gauges such as regression results or observations across multiple studies and thus cannot make causal claims (Eisenhardt, 1989). Additionally, we did not have access to the raw data for faculty-level teaching evaluations, limiting us to use of faculty averages which we could not use for statistical analysis. Future research should examine the strength of the relationships between imaginal elements and student learning outcomes, as well as consider experimental design to include a control group. We propose a specific structured research agenda for quantitative verification (see Supplemental Appendix D).

Thirdly, we did not account for potential individual differences and contextual factors. Our sentiment analysis and some specific quotes indicated the likely influence of individual differences like student life-stage, educational experience, or learning preferences. For example, students who felt serious games were only suitable for younger generations. Individual differences in motivation preferences suggest that personalised approaches combining intrinsic and extrinsic elements may optimise engagement across diverse student populations, for instance, allowing students to select their preferred learning method within the imaginal learning offering (see Figure 3).

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-alh-10.1177_14697874251387030 – Supplemental material for Roll for Intelligence: Imaginal Serious Games and Student Learning Outcomes

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-alh-10.1177_14697874251387030 for Roll for Intelligence: Imaginal Serious Games and Student Learning Outcomes by Brittany Currenti and Kate Letheren in Active Learning in Higher Education

Footnotes

We thank several people who were pivotal in the success of this study. Firstly,Natalie Sketcher (Instagram @sketcherface),whose incredible designs allowed us to implement this game in a visually stunning and engaging way. Secondly,our friendly reviewer Prof. Rebekah Russell-Bennett who provided mindful critique and elevated this paper. Thirdly,our representatives for each discipline/character,Prof. Uwe Dulleck,Prof. Rebekah Russell-Bennett,Prof. Felicity Deane,A/Prof,Radhika Lahiri,and Mr. Rob Hudson who provided unique insight into each disciplinary approach,mindset,and skills.

ORCID iDs

Brittany Currenti

Kate Letheren

Ethical Considerations

The data in this paper was approved via a university ethics committee,approval number: Queensland University of Technology ethics committee 8287-HE09.

Consent to Participate

The data collected in this paper was part of a general student ‘voice survey’ which is a university-wide student survey. Educators are given access only to data for their units and all data is completely anonymised. As we used data from this survey retrospectively as archival data,we were unable to contact or identify participants and were given a waiver by our ethics committee under sections 2.3.9-11 of the National Statement:

The waiver was granted because our research was:

Very low risk The benefits to future students of either this subject or similar subjects designed from the dissemination of our findings from this unit outweighed any potential risks It was impractical to obtain consent It was unlikely participants would not have consented had they been asked,as there is no identifying information and the research aims to improve student educational experiences There was sufficient protection of their privacy given that downloaded data were be stored securely on university systems with password-controlled access for the named researchers,and data was unlikely to have ever contained any identifying information.

Consent for Publication

Not applicable. As above,the need for individual consent was waived as there is no way to identify or contact participants.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,authorship,and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

Our paper presents a case study detailing the development and implementation process of a gamified educational approach using the table-top game ‘Challenges and Changelings’. While we include select teaching evaluation scores and student feedback quotes to illustrate the pilot’s outcomes,the dataset from university teaching evaluation surveys cannot be made publicly available as it is proprietary institutional data owned by Queensland University of Technology. We have ethical clearance to include the aggregate data in a publication only. The primary contribution of this work is the detailed methodology and resources for implementing similar game-based approaches;that is,the case study and its data serves to be illustrative and provide empirical basis for our conceptualising. Any researchers interested in implementing similar approaches would be welcome to contact the authors to discuss and seek advice on applicable metrics and integrating with their own institutions teaching evaluation surveys. Web appendices,templates,and guidelines available at

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Brittany Currenti recently submitted her PhD at University of Adelaide focused on a critical re-evaluation of the dominant role of convenience in our lives. Her work particularly utilises conceptual methodologies and philosophical critique. She is also a unit designer and tutor at QUT,and the Director of Behavioural Research at Australian law firm MinterEllison.

Kate Letheren (FHEA) Associate Professor of Australian Catholic University,and Adjunct at QUT Business School,researches human-centred AI and robotics,focusing on trust,interaction,and wellbeing. An editorial board member for Marketing Education Review and JAME,she translates insights into practical,socially responsible technology and education outcomes for industry and society.

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