Contrary to claims that the autopsy has not significantly changed over the past 150 years, this article will demonstrate the remarkable evolution of the autopsy at the hands of its practitioners since the 15th century and into the 21st. A solid understanding of the ongoing evolution of autopsy technique helps provide a firm argument for the continued utilization of the autopsy in daily practice and for the advancement of medicine.
BenivieniA.The hidden causes of disease/De abditis nonnullis ac mirandis morborum et sanationum causis. Singer S, translator. Bethesda (MD): The Classics of Medicine Library, Gryphon Editions, LLC; 2006. 217 p.
6.
ProstA.Médecine éclairée par l'observation et l'ouverture des corps.Paris: Demonville; 1804. 479 p.
7.
RooseT.G.Manuel d'autopsie cadavérique médico-légale.Paris: Duminil-Lesueur; 1808. 183 p. French.
8.
StilléA.Elements of general pathology: a practical treatise on the causes, forms, symptoms, and results of disease.Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston; 1848. 483 p.
9.
DelafieldF.A handbook of post-mortem examinations and of morbid anatomy.1st ed.New York: William Wood, & Co.; 1872. 376 p.
10.
ThomasA.R.A practical guide for making post-mortem examinations, and for the study of morbid anatomy, with directions for embalming the dead, and for the preservation of specimens of morbid anatomy.New York: Boericke & Tafel; 1873. 337 p.
11.
VirchowR.Post-mortem examinations, with especial reference to medico-legal practice. Smith TP, translator. Philadelphia: Preseley Blakiston; 1880. 138 p.
12.
WoodT.F.Method for performing post-mortem examinations.Raleigh (NC): Observer, State Printer and Binder; 1879. 32 p.
CasperJ.L.A handbook of the practice of forensic medicine, based upon personal experience. Balfour GW, translator. London: New Sydenham Society; 1861. 317 p.
15.
NauwerckC.Sektionstechnik fur studierende und Arzte.Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer; 1921. 319 p. German.
16.
HektoenL.The technique of post-mortem examination.Chicago: W.T. Keener Company, 1894. 172 p.
17.
WadsworthW.S.Post-mortem examinations.Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 1915. 598 p.
18.
OrthJ.Compendium der pathologisch-anatomischen diagnostik nebst anleitung zur aufuhrung von obduktionen.Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1876. 844 p. German.
19.
OrthJ.Compend of diagnosis in pathological anatomy with directions for making post-mortem examinations. Shattuck FC, Sabine GK, Fitz RH, translators. Houghton, Mifflin; 1885. 440 p.
20.
MalloryF.B.Pathological technique: a practical manual for workers in pathological histology including directions for the performance of autopsies and for microphotography.7th ed.Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders; 1938. 434 p.
21.
LudwigJ.Current methods of autopsy practice.2nd ed.Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1979. 724 p.
22.
FinkbeinerW., ConnollyA., UrsellP., DavisR.Autopsy pathology: a manual and atlas.2 ed.Philadelphia: Saunders; 2009. 441 p.
23.
ChiariH.Pathologisch-anatomische sectionstchnik.Berlin: Fischer's Medicinische Buchhandlung; 1894. 68 p. German.
24.
RossleR.Technik der obduktion mit Einschluß der maßmethoden an leichenorganen. In: AbderhaldenE.Handbuch der biologischen arbeitsmethoden. Vol. VIII, part 1(2). Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg; 1935. German.
25.
HauserG.Die Zenkersche sektionstechnik: eine anleitung zur vornahme von sektionen für studierende und ärzte.Jena (Germany): Gustav Fischer Verlag; 1913. 100 p. German.
26.
LetulleM.La pratique des autopsies.Paris: Masson; 1903. 546 p. French.
27.
HalpertB., GhonA.Pathologisch-anatomische sektionsmethode: nach den grundsatzen des Pathologischen Institutes der Prager Deutschen Universitat.Berlin: Springer; 1924. 48 p. German.
28.
DelafieldF., PruddenT.M.A handbook of pathological anatomy and histology with an introductory section on postmortem-examinations and the methods of preserving and embalming diseased tissues.4th ed.New York: William Wood & Company; 1892. 715 p.
29.
CoplinW.M.Manual of pathology including bacteriology, the technic of postmortems, and methods of pathologic research.5th ed.Philadelphia: Blakiston; 1911. 339 p.
30.
MoynihanB.G.A.The pathology of the living, and other essays.Philadelphia: Saunders; 1907. 260 p.
31.
CattellH.W.Postmortem pathology: a manual of the technic of postmortem examinations and the interpretations to be drawn therefrom; A practical treatise for students and practitioners.1st ed.Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1903. 372 p.
32.
SaphirO.Autopsy diagnosis and technic.4th ed.New York: Hoeber-Harper Book; 1958. 549 p.
33.
KernohanJ.W.Removal of the spinal cord by the anterior route; a new postmortem method. Am J Clin Pathol, 1933; 3: 455–8.
34.
CattellH.W.Postmortem pathology: a manual of the technic of postmortem examinations and the interpretations to be drawn therefrom; A practical treatise for students and practitioners 2nd ed.Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1905. 551 p.
35.
AdamsV.I.Autopsy technique for neck examination. I. Anterior and lateral compartments and tongue. Pathol Annu.1990; 25 Pt 2: 331–49. PMID: 2202964.
36.
Autopsy technique for neck examination. II. Vertebral column and posterior compartment. Pathol Annu.1991; 26 Pt 1: 211–26. PMID: 2014140.
37.
PollanenM.S., PereraS.D., ClutterbuckD.J.Hemorrhagic lividity of the neck: controlled induction of postmortem hypostatic hemorrhages. Am J Forensic Med Pathol.2009 Dec; 30(4): 322–6. PMID: 19901802. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/paf.0b013e3181c17ec2.
38.
DolinakD., MatshesE., LewE.Forensic pathology: principles and practice.1st ed.Boston: Elsevier Academic Press; 2005. 616 p.
39.
SpitzW.Spitz and Fisher's medicolegal investigation of death; guidelines for the application of pathology to crime investigation.4th ed.Springfield (IL): Charles C Thomas; 2006. 1325 p.
HouserS.L.The operated heart at autopsy.New York: Humana Press; 2009. 187 p.
42.
HutchinsG.M.Autopsy performance & reporting.Chicago: College of American Pathologists; 1990. 224 p.
43.
National Prion Disease Pathology Surveillance Center [Internet].Cleveland: Case Western Reserve University; c2010. Procedures for brain autopsies in prion diseases; [cited 2015 Sep 15]. Available from: http://case.edu/med/pathology/centers/npdpsc/protocols-autopsy.html.
44.
SnyderL.Homicide investigation: practical information for coroners, police officers, and other investigators.1st ed.Springfield (IL): Charles C Thomas; 1947. 287 p.
45.
CattellH.W.Postmortem athology: manual of the technic of postmortem examinations and the interpretations to be drawn therefrom; A practical treatise for students and practitioners.3rd ed.Philadelphia: Lippincott; 1906. 547 p.
46.
PotterE., AdairF.Fetal and neonatal death: a survey of the incidence, etiology, and anatomic manifestations of the conditions producing death of the fetus in utero and the infant in the early days of life.2nd ed.Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1950. 173 p.
47.
Gilbert-BarnessE., SpicerD.E., SteffensenT.S.Handbook of pediatric autopsy pathology.2nd ed.New York: Springer; 2014. 749 p.
48.
HanzlikR.The “value-added” forensic autopsy: public health, other uses, and relevance to forensic pathology's future. Acad Forensic Pathol.2015 Jun; 5(2): 177–85.
49.
SchmidtC.J., PechalJ.L., BenbowM.The human postmortem microbiome as a new forensic tool. Paper presented at: 2015 National Association of Medical Examiner's Annual Meeting; 2015 Oct 6; Charlotte, NC.
50.
MartinezR.M., PtacekW., SchweitzerW.CT-guided, minimally invasive, postmortem needle biopsy using the B-Rob II needle-positioning robot. J Forensic Sci.2014 Mar; 59(2): 517–21. PMID: 24313538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12329.
51.
MatshesE.W., EvansR.M., PinckardJ.K.Shaken infants die of neck trauma, not of brain trauma. Acad Forensic Pathol.2011 Jul; 1(1): 82–91.
52.
RodionovA.A.[A method of rapid extraction of the whole vertebral column during autopsy]. Arkh Patol.1984; 46(6): 80–1. Russian. PMID: 6477168.
