Abstract
Introduction
Indigenous students in Canada typically have lower educational attainment compared to non-Indigenous students (including other minoritized students), as evidenced by lower secondary school graduation rates and lower rates of attendance at postsecondary institutions (see Layton, 2023; Longboat, 2012; Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada [TRC], 2015). Additionally, Indigenous Canadian students are often inappropriately diagnosed with learning disabilities (Schroeder et al., 2023) and are placed in special education and/or on Individualized Education Plans (IEP)/Individualized Program Plans (IPP) at a much higher rate than their non-Indigenous peers, both of which can often discourage or even preclude them from pursuing postsecondary education and training opportunities, depending on how much of the curriculum was modified for the IEP/IPP, as well as provincial education policy and/or postsecondary institution admissions criteria (see Longboat, 2012; Mushquash & Bova, 2007; Schroeder et al., 2023); this opportunity gap has been identified as a key issue in the TRC’s Education Calls to Action (TRC, 2012, 2015).
In Nova Scotia, a significant opportunity gap has been found between Indigenous students and their non-Indigenous counterparts (Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, 2015); following key recommendations from the TRC, addressing this gap has been identified as a priority. Educators, administrators, and other school-based professionals must develop awareness of the challenges faced by Indigenous students to ensure that the opportunity gap is addressed holistically and that students receive appropriate supports in all areas of school functioning.
School psychologists play a pivotal role in identifying students who are at-risk of academic underachievement and make recommendations for academic program planning and additional supports. With respect to supporting Indigenous students, school psychologists can also play an important role beyond the educational setting, by advocating for Indigenous sovereignty (Bernett et al., 2023) and fostering community relationships (Tabor et al., 2023), as they are aware of the potential harms of well-intentioned but misplaced support and can be important allies in promoting culturally responsive practices (Bernett et al., 2023). However, many authors have raised concerns about the use of traditional school psychology methods with Indigenous students, most notably the use of standardized testing, as well as various therapeutic methods to manage mental health concerns (see Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada, 2018; Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023; Schroeder et al., 2023).
Misuse and/or misinterpretation of assessment measures without considering the role of culture or the validity of the measure in a population for which there are no norms can result in over- or under-representation of Indigenous students receiving diagnoses of learning and/or behavioral disorders and subsequent special education placements (Mushquash & Bova, 2007). This can then lead to Indigenous students not receiving the support they need, thereby contributing to the maintenance of the opportunity gap and to longer term difficulties such as school drop-out and lack of opportunities to access postsecondary education and training (see Layton, 2023; Longboat, 2012; Mushquash & Bova, 2007; TRC, 2015). Despite these concerns, school psychologists continue to use traditional measures and approaches “with conviction” (Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023, p. 31), prioritizing Eurocentric approaches to learning and dismissing the historical trauma caused by these practices (see Preston & Claypool, 2021; Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023; Schroeder et al., 2023).
Although there is acknowledgment by school psychologists that they have a responsibility to advance equity, diversity, and inclusion in educational settings (Schroeder et al., 2023), many school psychologists report that they lack the competence and necessary training to work effectively with Indigenous students (Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023; Rogers et al., 2022; Sabnis & Newman, 2023; Schroeder et al., 2023). Some researchers have also suggested that school psychologists might not be aware of the relation between individual, systemic, and contextual factors that could affect minoritized students’ functioning in testing situations or the external factors that affect school functioning more broadly (Andrews et al., 2023; Schroeder et al., 2023). These challenges should compel school psychologists to ask how they can do better when working with Indigenous students (Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2011).
To effectively support Indigenous students and to avoid replicating colonial harms to Indigenous children and families, it is crucial that school psychologists receive training in culturally responsive practice (Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023). School psychologists must develop knowledge of Indigenous cultures, issues, and worldviews, along with the unique strengths and stressors that present among Indigenous communities across the country (Bernett et al., 2023; Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2023). It is also essential to consider the history and current context of education and mental health among Indigenous peoples in Canada if school psychology is to adequately address its responsibility to people and communities (Bernett et al., 2023). The American Psychological Association (APA), Canadian Psychological Association (CPA), and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) have all identified development of cultural competency as a key area of focus for both practicing and trainee psychologists (see American Psychological Association, 1990, 2003, 2017; Canadian Psychological Association [CPA], 2017; Charley et al., 2015; National Association of School Psychologists, 2000). Additionally, in 2018, the CPA and the Psychology Foundation of Canada published a report outlining a series of recommendations to assist psychologists in engaging and adhering to the TRC’s Calls to Action and with understanding and being accountable for psychology’s historical role in the oppression of and discrimination against Indigenous Peoples (Bernett et al., 2023; Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada, 2018). In response to the CPA’s 2018 report and recommendations, the most recent version of the CPA Accreditation Standards for Doctoral and Residency Programs in Professional Psychology (CPA, 2023) were written to reflect the work of the TRC by acknowledging the harms done to Indigenous peoples by the profession and striving to promote reconciliation through cultural humility. Training and residency programs must now include education about Indigenous peoples, the TRC, and the harms caused by colonialism in addition to promoting Indigenous traditional knowledge across all aspects of curricula (CPA, 2023).
Specific to school psychology, six cross-cultural competencies have been identified by the APA School Psychology Division’s Task Force: (1) legal and ethical issues; (2) school culture, policy and advocacy; (3) psycho-educational assessment; (4) academic, therapeutic and consultative interventions; (5) working with interpreters; and (6) research (Rogers & Lopez, 2000). Robinson-Zañartu et al. (2011) note that these broad cultural competencies were designed to prepare school psychologists to transfer cultural awareness and skills from their training to practice, but Bernett et al. (2023) note that if school psychologists do not feel adequately prepared or competent to work with Indigenous peoples, they might not be able to effectively transition theory to practice.
There are some American data suggesting that school psychologists do not feel prepared to work with Native American students (e.g., Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2011), but Indigenous-focused school psychology research in Canada is very sparse, with limited scholarly outputs on this topic (see Bernett et al., 2023; Schroeder et al., 2023), and no Canadian studies (that we know of) have specifically examined school psychologists’ preparation for and perceived competence in working with Indigenous students. If school psychologists do not feel competent to work with Indigenous students, there is a risk that they will avoid working with these students and/or of misidentification of students and, potentially, a widening of the opportunity gap if Indigenous students are not provided with appropriate academic opportunities, programing, and supports. The purpose of the current study was therefore to examine school psychologists’ self-reported experiences of working with Indigenous students in public schools, their perceptions of their training/preparation, current knowledge, and knowledge needed to practice effectively with Indigenous students across the six domains of cross-cultural competency described above, and to determine areas of discrepancy among their training/preparation, current knowledge, and knowledge needed to practice effectively.
Method
Participants
Participants were 49 school psychologists, all of whom were practicing in one of the Regional Centres for Education (RCE) in Nova Scotia. This represents 56.3% of Nova Scotia psychologists currently practicing in schools (
Participant Demographics (
Participant Descriptive Statistics (
Measures
Using an online survey originally developed by Robinson-Zañartu et al. (2011) and modified to fit the Nova Scotia context (with the permission of the author), participants were asked about their experiences and competence when working with Indigenous students. The survey was divided into three sections: (1) Demographics; (2) Experiences working with Indigenous children and youth in public schools; and (3) Assessment of level of training/preparation, current perceived knowledge, and knowledge required for effective practice with Indigenous students. Using a Likert scale ranging from 0 (
Procedure
Participant recruitment was facilitated by the Psychologists in Schools Association (PISA), the provincial professional association for school psychologists in Nova Scotia. Participants were recruited in two ways: (1) they were sent a link to an anonymous online survey through the association listserv or (2) they were provided with a paper copy of the survey at a yearly school psychology professional development conference. Participants who wished to do so had the option of entering their name into a draw to win one of four $50 gift cards to thank them for their participation.
Results
Working with Indigenous Students in Schools
Forty-three (87.8%) participants indicated that they currently work with Indigenous students in schools. The most commonly reported percentage of Indigenous students in schools was 3% to 10% (
School Psychologists’ Development of Preparedness to Work with Indigenous Students (
When asked how important it is to know about the cultural background of the students they serve, the vast majority (
Training and Knowledge of Cross-Cultural Competencies
Friedman tests for k within subjects comparisons were completed to examine participants’ ordinal rankings of level of training/preparation, perceived current knowledge, and level of knowledge required for effective practice with Indigenous students, as well as any discrepancies in their rankings across each of the six areas of cross-cultural competency. Across all six areas of cross-cultural competency, perceived current knowledge was rated as being significantly higher than the level of training/preparation received and knowledge required to effectively practice with Indigenous students was rated as being higher than perceived current knowledge (see Tables 4 and 5).
Likert scale response patterns (percentage) for Training, Current Competence, and Need Across Six Areas of Cross-Cultural School Psychology Competency (
Friedman Test Results for Differences Between Training, Current Competence, and Need Across Six Areas of Cross-Cultural School Psychology Competency (
Knowledge of Federal and Provincial Policies/Programs
As shown in Table 6, there was variability in school psychologists’ knowledge of federal and provincial policies and programs that apply to Indigenous students. Although most participants reported that they had at least some knowledge of various policies and programs, very few reported
School Psychologists’ Knowledge of Federal/Provincial Policies and Programs.
Discussion
Less than half the participants surveyed reported that their graduate training prepared them to work with Indigenous students. Although many participants indicated that they have since gained additional knowledge through on-the-job training and personal research, it appears, based on their reports of knowledge required to practice effectively with Indigenous students, that this work has not been sufficient to develop and/or increase competency to work with Indigenous students across the six areas of cross-cultural competency assessed in the current study. This finding is consistent with those of Robinson-Zañartu et al. (2011) who similarly found that school psychologists did not feel adequately prepared for work with Indigenous students in the United States. Other authors (e.g., Ansloos et al., 2019; Bernett et al., 2023; Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada, 2018; Day, 2023; Fellner, 2018) have suggested that graduates from Canadian school psychology programs are likely not adequately prepared to work with Indigenous students and their families due to the lack of Indigenous-centered epistemologies and practices included in graduate psychology training programs. The current findings are certainly consistent with these suggestions.
In addition to school psychologists not feeling competent to work with Indigenous students across the six domains of cross-cultural competency, the majority also reported insufficient knowledge of historical policies and legislation that has harmed – and continues to harm – Indigenous peoples and communities in Canada, nor are they receiving appropriate information regarding current policies and programs that could potentially benefit Indigenous students. Many participants reported adequate knowledge of more commonly known policies and programs (e.g., Truth and Reconciliation Commission report, Jordan’s Principle), which is unsurprising, given that the TRC report was widely disseminated and that Jordan’s Principle funding is frequently accessed by school psychologists to provide supports to Indigenous youth. However, fewer participants were aware of the Indian Act and Peace and Friendship Treaties, as well as initiatives such as the Aboriginal Peoples Training and Education Initiative, the Child Help Initiative, and Mi’kmaw Kina’matnewey, all of which would be important for school psychologists to be familiar with to ensure that Indigenous students are receiving adequate supports and are not being disadvantaged with respect to eligibility for entry to programs and/or to funding opportunities that could facilitate academic and/or occupational success.
Although most participants reported being only somewhat knowledgeable about Indigenous students’ specific backgrounds, culture or traditions, the majority indicated that it was very important or essential to have knowledge of Indigenous students’ backgrounds and/or culture when working in the school setting. Psychologists clearly recognize the importance of understanding Indigenous students’ backgrounds and culture, but do not currently believe that they know as much as they could about individuals and communities. These findings align with those of Robinson-Zañartu et al. (2011) and suggest that, despite reporting that they do not currently feel competent to work effectively with Indigenous students, participants appear to be aware of the continuing effects of historical policy and the gaps in their knowledge and skills. These findings are encouraging, as they suggest an openness to learning as well as an understanding that ongoing skill development could lead to increased competence when working with Indigenous students. Capitalizing on this awareness and openness will be essential with respect to developing and implementing training opportunities at both the graduate level and with practicing school psychologists.
Relevance for School Psychology Training and Practice
As noted by the Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada (2018), the profession of psychology has an obligation to students being trained in applied psychology to ensure that they can demonstrate Indigenous cultural literacy, engage in discussion about the value of Indigenous knowledge, and identify areas in which Indigenous knowledge can be balanced with Western practices. Indeed, Ansloos et al. (2022) note that
With the current move toward requiring that more content relating to equity, diversity, inclusion, and accessibility (EDIA) be included in graduate training programs (see American Psychological Association, 2017; Charley et al., 2015; CPA, 2017, 2023) as well as in post-graduate continuing competency requirements through state and provincial licensing bodies, it is imperative to consider the most appropriate manner in which to incorporate training in cultural competency into school psychology training and practice. Robinson-Zañartu et al. (2011) note that the standard method of delivering content about cultural competency in psychology graduate programs often takes the “cultural tourism” approach, whereby one culture is surveyed each week or class, leading to a narrow perception of cultural diversity and disregard for individual differences among members of equity-deserving groups, as well as a lack of attention to the development and transferability of skills among trainees. Training opportunities must therefore focus on depth and breadth of experiences and content to ensure graduate students and practicing psychologists develop a holistic conceptualization of cultural competency.
It will be important to design training opportunities at the graduate level that not only provide students with ample opportunity to develop knowledge of theory but also hands-on experience through exposure to diverse communities in the local area and opportunities to complete practica in a variety of contexts. Lopez and Bursztyn (2013) suggest a transformative approach to school psychology training in which students are exposed to a “more comprehensive multicultural scope of perspectives” (p. 218) in their classroom and practical training. This approach places an emphasis on the development of critical thinking skills that will allow graduate students to engage in problem-solving and thinking in a way that acknowledges that learning and behavior are influenced by a number of factors in a complex way. Developing critical thinking abilities at the graduate level will allow trainees to conceptualize diversity issues by integrating values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors and understanding their interactions with variables such as culture, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and SES. In turn, this approach will enable students, and, by extension, practicing psychologists, to view the client as an individual who is part of a greater system and/or context (see Bartlett, 2012).
This transformative approach to training is consistent with the Indigenization approach to psychology training described by Ansloos et al. (2022), who stress that “Indigenous peoples and perspectives [should be] reflected and respected within educational experiences.” (p. 555). Indigenization in applied and/or school psychology training programs would therefore include content and pedagogy that reflect the experiences and concerns of Indigenous peoples across all courses and, where possible, practicum/residency experiences. Content should not be limited to instruction relating to cultural considerations when working with Indigenous students and families but must include explicit acknowledgment and remembrance of the harms inflicted on Indigenous peoples by the profession as well as culturally relevant content that values Indigenous knowledge (Ansloos et al., 2022). The Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada (2018) suggests that Indigenous cultural literacy courses need to be offered separately from more broad cultural diversity courses to ensure that psychologists grasp the effects of colonial history and policies (including the legacy of residential schools) that have resulted in intergenerational trauma among Indigenous peoples. However, Ansloos et al. (2022) highlight that a broad Indigenization approach could be more feasible than adding more courses and provide excellent suggestions for integrating Indigenous perspectives across foundational knowledge and core competency domains in counseling psychology; these could very easily be adapted to meet the requirements of school psychology training programs.
A transformative approach to school psychology training would embed multicultural themes and concepts within every aspect of the training program, including recruitment of faculty and students, courses, field experiences, teaching strategies, and course sequence. Indeed, this approach is consistent with current CPA accreditation guidelines that emphasize the addition of EDIA considerations in all aspects of training programs (CPA, 2023). However, Lopez and Bursztyn (2013), citing Tharp (1991), remind us that, in an attempt to overcome a history of ignoring multicultural issues in psychology and education, we run the risk of attributing everything to culture rather than conceptualizing the student/client as an individual within a cultural context. Making assumptions about the individual based on their cultural background can be just as dangerous as not taking their background into account; therefore, it is important to be aware of individual differences among cultural groups and multiple cultural identities that present among individuals in schools (Ingraham, 2000, as cited in Robinson-Zañartu et al., 2011) to ensure that we can make recommendations for the individual while considering context (cultural and other). As Tharp (1991) noted, “just because we have been blind
In addition to enhancing school psychology training to include Indigenous epistemologies and practices, it is also imperative to encourage Indigenous peoples to consider psychology (and specifically school psychology) as a career. Ansloos et al. (2022) note that Indigenization efforts in psychology education have been relatively minimal to this point, due to low Indigenous student enrollment as a result of colonization and discrimination, as well as a lack of cultural safety and educational, personal, and professional relevance for many Indigenous students. Increasing Indigenization of school psychology programs could encourage more Indigenous students to choose this field as a career and result in increased Indigenous faculty in school psychology training programs. However, as noted by the CPA Task Force (Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada, 2018) in their response to the TRC report, there are several barriers to entry to the field of psychology that must be addressed if Indigenous peoples are to pursue training and careers in professional psychology. To illustrate this point, Ansloos et al. (2019) estimated that there were only 12 Indigenous practicing and/or teaching doctoral-level psychologists working in Canadian post-secondary institutions. This number had grown to 15 by 2022 (Ansloos et al., 2022) and, although there has been an effort to increase Indigenous faculty in counseling psychology programs, this does not appear to be the case in clinical and school psychology programs (see Ansloos et al., 2022; Fellner, 2018). To decrease barriers and to increase enrollment of Indigenous students in professional psychology graduate training programs, the Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada (2018) made recommendations such as increasing bursaries for Indigenous trainees, supporting divergent epistemologies and course delivery methods that are outside the Western university tradition, and enhanced government support for psychology programs that include Indigenous languages and knowledge and that are located in communities. Committing to reducing these barriers and to Indigenization of psychology curricula could result in increased representation of Indigenous voices and perspectives among faculty in graduate training programs.
One Canadian Psychological Association & Psychology Foundation of Canada (2018) recommendation that could be an especially useful model for school psychology training would be to support Indigenous graduates who wish to return to their communities to provide psychological services; since most Indigenous communities have a school, this would be an ideal model of service provision in communities that might not have access to mental health services through a local health authority. This type of comprehensive mental health service delivery model in schools is advocated by the CPA Section for Educational and School Psychology (CPA, 2022) and would ensure that Indigenous clinicians or clinicians who are competent to work with Indigenous students and families are working in communities to provide comprehensive care. Indigenization efforts must therefore be combined with concerted efforts to reduce barriers for Indigenous students if meaningful changes to the demographics of the profession are to be made.
Limitations
One limitation of this study is the small sample size of school psychologists from a small province; however, the current sample comprised over half the practicing school psychologists in Nova Scotia, representing a relatively good response to the survey. As noted by Bernett et al. (2023), there has been very little focus on Indigenous peoples in school psychology and, prior to the 2023 special issue of the Canadian Journal of School Psychology, there has been limited scholarly output in this area. Despite this small regional sample, this work is necessary to build a national understanding of school psychology training and practice as it relates to working with Indigenous students, their families, and their communities. This work also represents the current perspective of school psychologists practicing in the province; participants have provided a realistic and current picture of school psychology practice in Nova Scotia from which it will be possible to make changes to training programs and professional development opportunities. Secondly, most participants were graduates from the same program, meaning that there was very little variability in training experiences; however, our findings were consistent with those of other research, suggesting that the challenges identified by participants in this study are not unique to the Nova Scotia context and must be addressed at both the local and national level. Third, given the sample size, it was not possible to compare the perceived knowledge and training needs of psychologists on the candidate register versus fully registered psychologists; understanding more about how psychologists expand their knowledge and competency in this area across their careers is an important topic for future research. Finally, based on self-reported ethnicity, our sample consisted largely of participants who identified as having white European (i.e., settler) backgrounds, meaning that bias could have been introduced in their responses to survey items.
Future Directions
This work represents a first step in understanding the gaps in knowledge and training needs of Nova Scotia school psychologists. Moving forward, it will be essential to work with Indigenous educators, Elders, knowledge keepers, and communities to understand their experiences with and needs related to school psychological services. Embracing cultural humility and moving from a “doing to” perspective to a “doing with” perspective, as described by the “two-eyed seeing” framework driven by Mi’kma’ki philosophy (see Hatcher et al., 2009) and highlighted in the most recent Tri-Council Policy Statement (see Government of Canada, 2022) will be an important step in moving forward, both with respect to determining how Indigenous communities would like to interact with school psychologists and how training can be better delivered to meet the identified needs of communities. By working collaboratively with communities, school psychology can begin to do better in promoting the academic success and overall wellbeing of Indigenous students in Nova Scotia and across the country.
Footnotes
ORCID iDs
